Gaps in education sector

Therefore, we applied a quality gaps model to ten courses belonging to the open university system In Brazil, researching course coordinatorsand students. Themulti-methods researchnoticed that institutionsgenerallydo not adopta market- riented model for decision-making in their courses and, therefore do not own d well- defined process to identity students' expectations and, consequently,to create quality strategies andpoliciesbased on theseexpectations. On the otherhand. lthoughhigher educatlonls legallyregulatedby the Ministry ofEducatlon, Institutions seekdifferentiation in the market byhiring and retaining qualified and caring personnel end by thedevelopment oflnnovetlveendexcltlnglearnlng actlvltlesthat stimulatestudent motivation. These actions are strategically differentiated and help reducing barriers related to distance education. Theinfrastructure which Is vital to thesuccess of atechnology-based coursels, stlll,a Ilmltanonlnremote areas. Flnally, a t- test shcwved there was a favorableperception of quality for both students andcoordlnators, but the latterwere moreoptlmlstlc Services quality.Introduction The study of services quality date of 1980's. These studies began with Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry published papers. Until then quality used to be studied only by operations field, which focus on tangible products quality. In operations quality means the absence of defects or compliance with the requirements of production [1]. Operations approach to quality assessment proved inadequate for the study of services, given its peculiar characteristics: intangibility, heterogeneity and inseparability . lntangibility means the inability to account for, store and test a service before its delivery.The heterogeneity comes from the intrinsic variability of the service, it means, a service will have different performance depending on the service provider, the client engagement and the context in which service is provided. Finally, inseparability concerns to th e fact that a service is consumed simultaneously to its production. These unique Mantovant Dateliy Mn et. al. l sep. -oct. 2013 | vol. 2 1 Issue 5130-39 characteristics make it difficult to assess quality for a service [1]. Parasuraman et al. were pioneers in assessing quality in services.Their approach was so successful that it has been used since the 80's. For the authors, unlike tangible products, the quality of a service refers to the perception customers have about it[l] and this perception occurs during the interaction between the client and the service provider [2]. Under this perspective, perceived quality is measured by the difference between the perceived erformance of a service and the initial expectations about it (service quality = perception of service performance – expectations about the service). pproach considers that expectations refer to the service desired by the customer and the minimum level of service acceptable in his/her point of view. Then, a zone of Available online at www. management]ournal. info tolerance is created, determining satisfactory and acceptable levels of service [3]. Difference between perception of service performance and initial expectations gave rise to what is called â€Å"gaps model of service quality', the object of this study. Pioneer studies focused on banking services quality, credit card and maintenance services [1].Services quality assessment became popular and other services began to be studied in the same light. Higher education can be understood under services point of view, since education market has become client-oriented (considering student as a client). This means education market is no longer purely education-oriented (pedagogy-oriented), which makes it possible to consider education institutions as providers of educational products and services [4]. It is important to note that education is not a common service, like banking or estaurant services, since it owns a key role in society and has a non-business mission to develop criticalcitizens.Education core mission is social, non-commercial; it means education aims to develop better human beings and better citizens Higher education institutions (HE's) have been facing fierce local and global competition, besides of challenges, such as high dropout rates and limited understanding of the market and students' needs. Online distance education has outstanding participation in increasing competitiveness among institutions around the approach feasible for education comprehension Word of mouth communicationIn Brazil, distance education has been gaining importance. In 2010, 14. 6 % of college students were attending distance education course, compared to Just 0. 2 % in 2002 [7]. This scenario can be explained by the expansion of education in Brazil, with the creation of new institutions, creation of new vacancies and creation of the Open University of Brazil (I-JAB), subject matter of the article. Distance education, for its pecu liar characteristics (space and temporal separation between instructor and student, technology intensive use, learner empowerment etc. faces its own challenges, such as student motivation ifficulties, high dropout rates and time management trouble. Given social importance of education, the growing role of distance education in Brazil and the challenges faced by this modality, the purpose of this article is to assess quality gaps in a distance education undergraduate course. We studied Public Administration undergraduate distance course from the Open University of Brazil, using the perspective of services quality.Thus, we compared students' and managers' (course coordinators) perceptions about the education services provided. We collected data from institutions belonging to I-JAB project and applied oth qualitative and quantitative methods in a multi-method research approach. Quality Gaps Parasuramanet al. [1] were pioneer on services quality research. As a result, they observed gaps between executives perceptions and consumers' perceptions about a same service quality, which gave rise to a five gap model, presented in Fig. 1.

Benefits in Youth Football

Since the creation of man, sports have had a tremendous role in the way people live their lives. From the time we are born, until our elderly age, most of us are involved in some way with sports. Whether it is a scrimmage game of soccer at recess in elementary school, playing on the varsity athletic team or simply watching the Olympics or sporting events on television, sports have an influential role in our everyday lives. The outstanding popularity of the sports industry has profoundly affected youth sports organizations that an estimated twenty-six million children ages six through eighteen participate in at least one school or community based athletic program (Smith & Smoll, 1997). Well structured sport programs can provide youths with opportunities to participate in activities that have immediate and long term benefits, both psychologically, physically, and socially (Willox, 1994). A large psychological benefit of sport participation is that sports can boost the self esteem of the people participating. The self-esteem of children is boosted when parents, coaches, and other teammates give the child positive feedback and show a sense of pride in what the child has accomplished (Bilich, 2006). Numerous studies have shown that girls who participate in physical activity such as sports are more likely to have more positive feelings of self-worth/self-esteem and a more positive body image than girls who are not very physically active in sports (USA Football, 2006). This feedback is also important because it encourages young competitors to view success as achieving their own realistic goals, rather than depending on winning as the main reason for success. This psychological benefit of self esteem in many cases goes along with academic performance. A study conducted by Hardiness Research of Wyoming found that by a 2:1 ratio for boys and a 3:1 ratio for girls, those who participate in sports perform better in school, do not drop out and have a better chance to get through college (USA Football, 2006). Young athletes can learn to handle misfortune, whether its picking themselves up after losing a big game or not getting as many minutes in as they wanted and can learn to find ways to deal with losing and go on, because there's another game in a couple days, next week or even next year. These youths can learn to figure out what to do to get what they want for themselves and they learn to realize that if they put in extra time on fitness or work on specific weaknesses in their game they can obtain personal goals. Kids who interpret heir involvement on a task as successful persist and their motivation to be involved remains high (Anshel, 2003). This type of attitude behavior can be used on the field and off the field such as a classroom setting. High quality sports programs in public housing locations can significantly reduce the number of behavioral and emotional disorders in children and teens that live out there in low poverty social class neighborhoods. Participation in sports help emotionally disturbed teens become more confident, more expressive, and more independent (Bilich, 2006). If you take into account the inner city kids that don't have a parent there to make them get up and go to school then sports may be the deciding factor for them. A study done by the Women's Sports Foundation found that girls who participate in sports are 80 percent less likely to have unwanted pregnancies and 92 percent less likely to get involved with drugs than those who don't participate in sports (USA Football, 2006). Finally physically disabled youth who have taken part in sports have shown improvements in self esteem, self concept, and self acceptance. This is important because a youth who is physically disabled has every right to play a sport just like a youth who is physically healthy and almost every sport out there can be modified to allow participation by someone with a disability. Also across the country, sports programs such as the Special Olympics that are designed for children and adults who wish to compete against others with mobility and vision impairments are growing in number (Devine, McGovern & Hermann, 1998). This is a large boost in the physically disabled youth's self-esteem because that youth knows that their participation in sport allows them the opportunity to advance in sport just like a healthy youth can. Physical activity is essential for children; therefore sport participation has many physical benefits for youths (Willox, 1994). In the United States there is a very unhealthy trend of physically unfit children going on. According to a recent study by the Harvard School of Public Health seven out of ten kids in our nation are out of shape and the incidence of obesity has increased by more than 50 percent among America's children and teen since 1976 and continues to grow at a staggering rate (Metzel & Shookhoff, 2006). When children participate in sports activities they get some of the exercise they need to improve their quality of life and can help prevent children from becoming obese. Physical activity regulates obesity because it increases energy expenditure, suppresses ppetite, increases metabolic rate, and increases lean body mass (Willox, 1994). Even though regular physical sport activity has been shown to improve physical fitness, it can also help in preventing many different health problems down the line that youths who participate in sports are more likely not to develop than youths who do not participate in sports. Women who participated in organized sport and fitness programs as children ha ve significantly higher done densities as adults than women who were not active as children (McCulloch, 1990). Some long term physical activities, particularly gymnastics and swimming, are effective in reducing asthmatic symptoms, frequency of hospitalization, and use of medication for children between 5 and 14 years of age (Willox, 1994). By reducing the symptoms of the diseases the child may have to see a doctor less than if they were not participating in sports. Life is inherently stressful, and youth sports provide ample opportunities for child athletes to cope effectively with sport related stress (Anshel, 2003). Therefore, sports and physical activity also allow youths to clear their minds of academic and social pressures, to literally run off the tension that's accumulated in their muscles. This may serve as an inoculation to build antibodies in children against the more harmful stress viruses they will encounter later in life (Anshel, 2003). This can prevent children who have participated in sports not to develop negative lifelong attitudes toward physical activity, and continue an active lifestyle compared to children who have not participated in sports may in the future experience an inactive lifestyle. Finally, because sports increase an awareness of one's body and how it responds to different stimuli and circumstances, sports help prevent drug and alcohol abuse (Willox, 1994). Research has shown that students who participate in interscholastic sports are less likely to be regular and heavy smokers; students who play at least one sport are 40 percent less likely to be regular smokers and 50 percent less lively to be heavy smokers; regular and heavy smoking decreases substantially with an increase in the number of sports played (USA Football, 2006). Since most older and successful athletes value what their bodies can do and want to maintain those abilities, youths find this as the opportunity to also be a good athlete by telling their friend no to drugs, booze and other high risk, unhealthy behaviors. Sports are a social activity. Youth athletes develop relationships with their teammates and coaches that can sometimes last a lifetime. For boy, sports are a primary and unfortunately sometimes the sole, way of socializing with others and in many schools and communities non-athletic males find it difficult to develop a social network at all; for girls on the other hand, girls tend to define themselves through their relationships rather then achievements, sports offers yet another way to make friends and create an alternate peer group (Metzel & Shookhoff, 2006). Therefore youths involving themselves in sports can also socially and psychologically give children a meaning of self worth and self concept by having a feeling of belonging. This socializing and sense of belonging can also allow children and youth to develop their communication skills as well as learning to work together and cooperate to produce teamwork. Sports also allow youths to take leadership roles and step out into the forefront (Willox, 1994). Whenever possible give youth athlete players an opportunity to make decisions that affect their play or the game because when a players position, team strategy and other individual decisions can help the team meet their needs and succeed the individual meets their needs for self-determination (Anshel, 2003). Self determination is a key factor in youths to continue wanting to be socially involved in a team for their own benefit. Sport participation in children and youths are excellent places for teaching of cooperative values and skills such as communication, honesty, sportsmanship and teamwork that can promote a sense of strong positive and social values (Willox, 1994). Sports are very beneficial to children and youths that participate in them. Sports teach the participants many lessons that can carry over into the real world and help succeed in the rest of their life. In fact 80 percent of women identifies as key Fortune 500 companies participated in sports during their childhood (USA Football, 2006). Youth sports provide a safe environment where youths and teens can build on their goals and dreams of maybe one day becoming a professional athlete, while also building their psychological, physical and social values for a more successful future.

Invented Tradition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Invented Tradition - Essay Example In the mid 19th century the war between British and China has caused the leader of the British to concede. This was about the legalization of the opium by the Western to sell it to the drug addicts in China. Like in the present situation marijuana and other addicting substance are being sold anywhere. Racism is one of the invented traditions that are important in the development of the Asia or the Orient. It is one of the problematic notions in the Western. From the 19th century until now Westerns or the Europeans and Americans tends to look one person based on its race or history. The racism in Asian or the orient is not evident since they can adopt in different cultural norms and values. China for example has become successful today because of hard work and cooperation without tracing the race or beginnings. It is an invented tradition which may not help the development of a nation. The traditions can be grafted from the old ones. The western notion about race can still be adopted in a different ways. The traditional song or folksong can be the basis of identification of a certain nationality. In the past Asian such as the Philippines has several folksongs helping it in identifying the country. By this invented tradition several composers and writers have been able to compose several songs which was taken from the past and continued in the present. This song from the Western colony has been reorganized or arranged to adopt in the culture of the Asians. The historical development of the song from the Western notion has been changed thru repetitive arrangement of the song and several corrections on it. Now Asians or the Orient has its identity from the invented traditions of songs. Religions in the past are also a significant factor in the history of the Asians under the Europeans. Catholics before are devoted, the invented tradition of religion in western notion of Asians has been changed by changing several writings about the Bible. The result of several religious groups today maybe traced from the past. The war in the religion maybe the cause of different beliefs arises from the culture they are living. Before Westerns are believed to be Catholic, but now different groups with different names is arising adopting their beliefs from the Catholic. Invented tradition is useful since from the past we will be able to solve several problems from the present. The invented tradition may serve as an evidence of the present problem that can be solved by studying the past and the origin of the tradition. The problem in the racism as stated above can be solved by tracing back the tradition of the past. The history of the songs written and the national anthem of every nation can be understood by analyzing the past. Thru invented tradition the understanding about human relation will be clearly analyzed. Discrimination in certain western area can be prevented by tracing the past of such belief to the present situation of the Asian people in a western soil. The western notion about the niger or the black race can be changed by presenting the history of the Asian or the Orient. 2. What role has power and hierarchy

UK economy during 2008 recession Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

UK economy during 2008 recession - Essay Example It is worth mentioning that decline in consumption has direct adverse impacts upon production, which then leads to closure of businesses followed by retrenchment and unemployment. Also, the subprime mortgage property crises in USA triggered closures, mergers and acquisitions of US financial institutions, but it also negatively affected UK investment, commercial banks and financial institutions as they were among the businesses that also made huge investments in US banking and property sectors. Finally, this led to a credit crunch like situation that sabotaged the financial position of UK banks, which were facing liquidity problems and were reluctant in sanctioning loans to borrowers. Finally, the expectations and forecasts that UK economy would contract by more than 2 – 2.5% in 2009 also aggravated the situation and interest rates were reduced to 3% from 4.5% by Federal Bank after instructions of UK government regarding formulation of new monetary policy to reduce business cos ts, to boost investors and consumers’ morale and to trigger greater purchase responses. Recall that economic theory argues that the greater the number of transactions and consumption level, the more employment and jobs opportunities will create due to multiple exchanges of money among people (Hetzel, 2009). As far as the fiscal policy is concerned, it should be pointed out that UK government announced financial bailout packages of ?12bn and ?18bn so that it could pump money in the economy to eradicate liquidity crises and trigger consumer purchase responses. In addition, the government also announced tax cuts (direct and indirect levies) so that businesses could ensure their survival in challenging external business environment. Had the above measures not been taken, the UK cumulative negative GDP growth rate had surpassed 3% due to credit crunch and rising debts (Wren-Lewis, 2010). 2. Explain UK monetary and fiscal policy during the crisis according to IS - LM model. It is w orthwhile to mention the fact that IS – LM model shows the relationship between real interest rate and output level. The IS curve shows the corresponding interest rate that clears the good market. The IS curve slopes downward because the aggregate output increases at low real interest rates and vice versa. Indeed, IS curve is derived from changes in desired investment and desired saving in an economy. The LM curve shows the real interest rate that clears the asset market. For instance, the LM curve is actually derived from changes in real money supply and real money demand. In addition, economic theory talks about Full Employment Line that shows the labour market equilibrium i-e employment and output are at Full employment level. As far as the UK economy is concerned, I would assume that the IS – LM had been in general equilibrium prior to recession i-e the goods, asset and labour market were in equilibrium simultaneously. Real interest IS LM Equilibrium point Output N ow when UK economy entered in recession, the UK government changed the monetary and fiscal policies that would cause shifts in IS and LM curves. For example, the reduction in nominal interest rate on money will reduce money demand, thereby reducing the real interest rate that clears asset market and causing a downward shift in LM curve. Similarly, increasing nominal money supply in market through stimulus package will reduce real interest rat

Introduction to ICD Classification - Classification Systems (U2IP&DB) Essay

Introduction to ICD Classification - Classification Systems (U2IP&DB) - Essay Example e United States official system for assigning codes to procedures and diagnoses based on the World Health Organizations Ninth Revision, International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9)† (MediLexicon, 2008, pg. 1). Four main steps are involved in the process of selecting the proper ICD-9-CM codes. These must be followed in detail in order to ensure that the diagnosis is accurately described by the code. The steps described in the following paragraph are necessary in order to establish the proper ICD-9-CM code (Pelaia, 2003, pg. 7). The first step in assigning the proper ICD-9-CM code is to â€Å"review the medical record documentation in order to properly identify the terms that best describe the patient’s diagnosis† (Pelaia, 2003, pg. 8). The second step in assigning the proper code is to â€Å"look up the terms that best describe the patient’s diagnosis in Volume 2 (the alphabetic index) and identify the ICD-9 code that best matches the diagnosis† (Pelaia, 2003, pg. 9). The third step in assigning the proper ICD-9-CM code is to â€Å"look up the selected code in Volume 1 (the tabular list) to make the code selection. Careful attention should be paid to ‘includes’ and ‘excludes’ notes and other instructions in Volume 1† (Pelaia, 2003, pg. 10). Finally, all information should be carefully reviewed and verified. It is extremely important for a medical coder or for a medical professional responsible for ensuring that the correct diagnostic codes are being recorded for the procedures performed at a medical facility is using an up-to-date code book. Failing to use a current code book can result in a variety of mishaps that can easily be avoided. If a person loses his or her current code book, it should be replaced immediately. First of all, it is essential that medical personnel keep proper records in order to stay compliant with legal regulations. Using an old code book could result in the wrong diagnosis being recorded for a patient which could

Royal Opera House analysis Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Royal Opera House analysis - Term Paper Example d analysis of the entire organization, products, uniqueness, strengths and weaknesses of it as a business model, and other imperative sectors which will enable others to understand how this organization functions and targets its demographic in order to serve the public by meeting cultural desires of the people for entertainment and also to provide jobs for those who are employed by the ballet and opera house as performers. The organization itself is a series of different theaters, both inside and outside that are home to the ballet, opera, and orchestra and also show many other performances. Not only is there an entertainment sector, but there is also an educational sector that serves as a program for young and promising dancers and musicians to further their knowledge in hopes to try their own personal talent. The students are coached as if at a school and become more formally educated than they would at a public or private school in London. The Royal Opera House is one of the top theaters in the world. While there are numerous other theaters in the area, many are much smaller than the Royal Opera House. This organization is supported by patrons, donors, and even grants. However, additional income is earned through the bars and restaurants that are included within the Royal Opera House. Another portion that serves as a fundraising opportunity for the organization is the gift shop which offers products both for sale onsite and also on the Internet. Music and the arts as a source of entertainment is very popular in this area. Located in the City of London, it is a place where not only locals but visitors can attend performances all year long. Many of the productions are targeted toward elitists. However, many of the programs produced at the Royal Opera House are starting to focus more on the youth. One recommendation is that the Royal Opera House continue to market toward the youth both as performers and as audience members. This is an excellent

ASDA Case Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ASDA Case Analysis - Assignment Example The company had acquired loans to facilitate its expansion and it was therefore necessary for the organization to develop new measures to ensure profitability. The management was unable to ensure that the new stores were profitable. Communication between employees and the management is a serious issue for any organization. There was a breakdown in communication between the management and lower level employees in the organization. The management structure in an organization can limit communication and ASDA had placed a structure that prohibited effective communication. 2. The organization faced serious management issues ranging from lack of motivation for workers to poor financial decisions. According to the motivational theory, employees can only perform when they are given flexibility and the chance to succeed. At ASDA, creativity from the employees was continuously repressed and they lacked the ambition to succeed in the work place. In addition, leadership theories such as transactional theory suggest that leadership is about focusing on the set goals and motivating employees to achieve these goals. At ASDA, these problems created a vacuum, which in turn brought about uncertainty. The financial crunch at the time and bad management were therefore responsible for the issues at ASDA. The goal setting theory states that organization should set goals. The management should therefore have set clear goals to avoid the issues. Strategies adopted by Hardman introduced a dictatorial culture in the organization that inhibited creativity from the employe es. 3. It was clear to Norman that the culture in the organization needed an overhaul so that it could accommodate all employees and attract new customers. In addition, the shareholders needed to trust the organization once more. To achieve this, it was important to change employee attitude at ASDA. This should have been

Approve or disapprove each proposal and provide your reasons such as Research Paper

Approve or disapprove each proposal and provide your reasons such as costs, benefits and ethical issues raised in relation to your recommendation to Approve or Disapprove - Research Paper Example If anyone has ever heard of the Tuskegee experiment, or the human experiment performed on Guatemalans by infecting them with STD’s, one knows the dangers that can be inherent upon experimenting on people—which may abound. This research will delve into whether the proposed research and cost, the experimental group and benefits, and the control group and ethics are balanced in experimenting with human subjects. Your committee is the State University IRB. Dr. Jones is interested in the effect of stress on performance on the McCord Intelligence Test. She feels that the test, which is very †¨widely used in public schools, gives misleadingly low scores to kids under stress. The proposed research is about how stress affects student performances on the McCord intelligence test. However, one of the difficulties with such a test is the way in which the experiment was conducted. In order to measure stress—instead of having one group told they had failed and having one group told they had passed—that would not have factored in to stress as much as other ways of testing this. For example, the experimental group could have been given various stressing tasks to do before the test—such as writing a timed essay—while the other group, the control group, would not have to write such an essay before being tested. This would more effectively test the results of stress on students taking tests, some of whom may either underperform on assessments or might have anxiety problems. These people tend not to score well. She †¨wants to divide her subjects (college students) into two groups of 20 each. All subjects †¨will take a bogus pretest and will be given their "results." The experimental group will be †¨told that they failed the test and that it is surprising that they were able to do well enough †¨in high school to get into college. The benefits of the study do not

Linguistic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Linguistic - Essay Example The more these parameters are accurate and effective, the more help they offer in streamlining the process of translation in a convincing way. â€Å"[T]ranslation is the ability to mediate between cultures, to explain one to another; mixed loyalties; the pushes and pulls of the source and target cultures† (Robinson, 1997, p. 222). In order to achieve equivalence in translation, it is imperative that the translation services strike a balance between the culture and language, though it is undoubtedly a difficult task to accomplish. Language and culture both are of extreme significance in the process of translation because of the strong link between the three of them. This is the very reason why different languages not only differ in the ways of expression of ideas, but also vary in the fundamental ideas expressed in them. So different societies speaking different languages tend to visualize and perceive things from different perspectives. According to the Whorfian Hypothesis, â €Å"The relationship between language and culture is that the structure of a language determines the way in which speakers of that language view the world. Different speakers will experience the world differently at the same level in which the languages they speak differ structurally† (Whorf cited in Wardhaugh, 1998, p. 216). ... One category of scholars base the translation on the source oriented theory whereas the other category of scholars place emphasis on the target oriented ideals while translating texts. The second approach is more commonly applied in the contemporary online market in terms of localization and adaptation. There is also a third category of scholars who tend to balance out the faithfulness of text with the accommodation of the targeted audiences. â€Å"W]hen translating, it is important to consider not only the lexical impact on the target language reader, but also the manner in which cultural aspects may be perceived and make translating decisions accordingly† (Burgos and Jaimes, n.d., p. 426). Of the two approaches towards translation, the context oriented approach is more flexible with respect to equivalence as compared to the source oriented approach. Nevertheless, there is lack of convincing grounds for the denial of the significance of equivalence as a concept in the context oriented approach. â€Å"Instead of clarifying that their rather (text-free) context-bound approach by its very nature does not include the concept of equivalence, these theories attempt to deny the nature of translation itself by portraying it as non-equivalence related phenomenon/activity† (Cuellar, n.d.). This is one of the main loopholes in the context-based approach towards translation. Since the process is non-equivalence based, the result is just another kind of language that is plainly an imitation, and cultural adaptation rather than an exact translation of the original language. Theories of Equivalence in Translation Various theories of equivalence have been proposed in the past like the Jakobson’s Equivalence Theory, and Nida’s Equivalence Theory. According to the Jakobson’s

Vilademir propp and how his functions are related with hitchcocks two Essay

Vilademir propp and how his functions are related with hitchcocks two films that are north by northwest and spellbound - Essay Example He was responsible for multiple changes that have been experienced in literature, and especially in narratives (Hale 2009). Today, Vladimir’s ideas are still used in narrative plots, and most importantly, his ideas are more applicable to narratives. However, these today have been applied in the film and cinema industry. Different film theorists have equally studied on narrative structure and this is in conformity with Propp’s work (Bellour & Penley 2000). In this essay, I will address Propp’s findings in Morphology of Folk Tale, their contribution to the narrative theory of film, and how they relate with Hitchcock’s films â€Å"North by Northwest† and â€Å"Spellbound.† Propp in his Morphology of Folk Tale comes up a total of eight roles of the characters, and thirty-one functions of narratives, also called narratemes, which mainly defined the structure of the narratives. He was convicted that these narrative functions were existent in the classical fairy tale narrative (Hale 2009). The eight character roles, which Propp identified in his book, include The Helper, The Villain, The Donor, The False Hero, The Dispatcher, The Hero, The Princess, and her father. The functions of narratives by Propp exhibit more flexibility than the character roles. Propp made a categorization of these narrative functions to include six major groups, which are in coherence with the flow of the narrative. These include Struggle, Complication, Preparation, Recognition, Transference, and Return. The folk tales of different regions of the world are interconnected in one way or another, bearing a great deal of similarities in their themes. Hence, the Morphology of the folk t ale by Propp is not only applicable in Russian folk tales, but also to the folk tales of other different world regions (Propp 1928). Propp’s work has been credited for

Fractional Distillations Essay Example for Free

Fractional Distillations Essay In this experiment we aim to demonstrate that we can separate two volatile compounds from a mixture due to the different chemical properties of each compound. We will accomplish this by a separation procedure known as distillation, which relies on each compound having a distinct and separate boiling point. Our pure products will be analyzed with gas chromatography to determine the success of the distillation. Procedures The experiment was performed as stated in the course textbook: Pavia, D. L., Lampman, G. M., Kriz, G. S., Engel, R. G. Introduction to Organic Laboratory Techniques: A Microscale Approach. 2007, 4th Ed. Pp 51—57. . Data The distillation curves for our simple and fractional distillation (See page 3) clearly demonstrate that fractional distillation separates the two compounds more completely. The boiling point (bp) of our unknown compounds was taken from the flat regions of the fractional distillation curve. Our unknown mixture contained hexane (bp 69  ºC) and toluene (bp 110.6  ºC). Analysis via gas chromatography allowed us to determine the relative percentage of hexane and toluene at fractions near the beginning and end of our distillations. Relative percentages have been recorded in the table below, and our calculations are shown on page 5. Conclusion This week we utilized two methods of distillation (simple and fractional) to separate a mixture of two volatile compounds. We found that while the simple distillation separated the majority of the two compounds near the beginning and the end of the distilling process, fractional distillation produced much more pure fractions. In simple distillation the column was shorter, allowing less room for the two different compounds to fully separate. While heating the round-bottom flask the hexane molecules gain higher kinetic energy faster than the toluene molecules due to their lower molecular weight and lesser intermolecular forces. The longer fractional  distillation column allowed the hexane molecules with higher kinetic energy to separate from the lower-energy toluene molecules. After viewing the gas chromatograph data from the fractional distillation we saw that our unknown compounds had almost completely separated, while the fractions from the simple distillation were less pure. Although distillation is a good separation technique it is still necessary to ensure that proper steps are taken to reduce the chances of error. Failure to add a boiling chip to the round-bottom flask could allow the mixture to heat unevenly. This could allow molecules with a higher boiling point to gain kinetic energy before the molecules with the lower boiling point, which would create impure fractions. Watching the rate of temperature increase is also important. Allowing the temperature to increase too quickly can cause impurity for the same reason. We forgot to add the boiling chip to the round-bottom flask in the simple distillation, which could have contributed to the mixture of toluene and hexane that we saw. We made sure to include the boiling chip in the fractional distillation, however, and did not observe any problems. Even though both hexane and toluene are volatile, they have different chemical properties to allow for separation and analysis. Hexane is a hydrocarbon with no dipole moment or double bonds. This means that it has few intermolecular interactions, and will have a lower boiling point. It also has a lower molecular weight than toluene, so it will appear first on the gas chromatograph. Toluene has a benzene ring with a methyl group attached. Toluene has greater intermolecular forces than hexane because the benzene ring withdraws electrons from the methyl group. This creates a slight polarity to the molecule that increases intermolecular forces and increases the boiling point. Since toluene has a greater molecular weight than hexane it will appear second on the gas chromatograph. This experiment illustrates how useful the different properties of compounds can be while trying to purify mixtures of compounds.

Ethical Perspectives in Business

Ethical Perspectives in Business There are many approaches to ethics. I will briefly outline two types of theoretical approach to ethics and their implications: principle-based approaches, and character and relationship-based approaches. Principle-based approaches to ethics: It is important to understand this concept. This approach has often been based on two different ethical traditions Kantianism and utilitarianism. Immanual Kant, was a German philosopher (1724-1804) in the eighteenth-century. He developed a theory of ethics. His theory mainly focused on the ultimate principle of respect for the individual person (Kant 1785/1964). This approach to ethics is known as deontological or duty-based. It plays a vital role in moral philosophy and also in professional ethics. Persons are considered to have rational and self-determination it means they are capable of making choices and acting upon them. For deontological ethics, the important thing isnt the result or consequence of the action, but the action itself. If the action is wrong, in and of itself, then dont do it. This approach mainly has its focus on respect of the service user and also that he can make his own decisions. The main principles in this approach are to maintain confidentiality, obtain informed consent, no discrimination or offering misleading or false information. For Kant, it would be morally wrong to perform any action which is based on false information even though the end result is beneficial. According to this approach, we must all respect individuals choices. Utilitarianism, on the contrary, is a teleological theory. It is particularly associated with two British philosophers, Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) (Mill 1863/1972). Also known as the consequentialist theory of ethics. The main difference lies in the concept and it is in striking contrast as compared to the Kantian ethics. The moral worth (rightness or wrongness) of an action is said to lie in its consequences; hence if we have to decide if an action is right or wrong, we have to weigh pros and cons and also anticipate. According to this concept, if lying leads to good results, it would probably be good to lie. This theory relies on the fact that whether something is right or wrong depends on the result or end of that action. Theories that are interested in ends are called teleological. The name has originated from the Greek word for end telos. For a teleological ethical thinker, the end justifies the means. The believers of this theory argue that the rightness of an action is judged by the end it produces. In my opinion, people consider both types of ethical principles in making decisions. We have to make a judgment that ensures that we are looking at individuals best interest or the welfare of the society at a bigger scale. Absolute and relative ethics Absolute ethics holds that there is one universal moral code which is final and applies equally to all men of all ages, and that changing situations or changing views make no difference whatsoever to this absolute moral code. Relative or relativistic ethics holds that the moral standard varies with different circumstances. There are so many cultural and religious differences and in some circumsatnces, it may be ethically correct to do certain things but in other situations it might be completely immoral. For example it is right for Muslim people to have four wives but for a Christian man this would be considered immoral. Examples of ethical issues which can affect the operational activities of a business. The advantages of ethical behaviour include: Higher revenues demand from positive consumer support. This will also lead to improved brand and business awareness and recognition. If the business in running in an ethical manner, it would also lead to better employee motivation and recruitment. And finally the business will grow because of new sources of finance. But sometimes the situation is difficult and there are some ethical issues faced. It can be difficult to decide as to what is right and what is wrong. Certain examples are: Use of child labour and forced labour: It is against the law to use children for work or to employ someone to work for you against his or her will. They might need the money but it is unethical. Even if the child or his parents agree and provide their consent, it is unethical and illegal to use child labour and do forced labour. Production in sweatshops is also unethical. Sweatshop is a factory or production place where the working environment considered to be unacceptably difficult or dangerous. Employee Working Conditions: employers must be aware of the safety of their work environment and must make sure that they pay their employees adequately. An employee should take ethics into consideration while giving a very difficult task or asking an employee to stay for long hours outside the working times. Violation of the basic rights of workers: All workers have the basic rights. Everyone is entitled to a break when they have worked continuously for long hours. Even if there is a deadline to meet or there is lot of work to be completed, we must ensure that the basic rights are provided to all the workers. Ignoring health, safety and environmental standards: Sometimes due to financial restraints the employer is not able to cater for the health and safety and it doesnt meet the required standards. There is no excuse for this type of behaviour. This would be considered unethical. Employee behavior: This can be a matter of debate. Should an employer allow his employees to read their personal emails at work? If the employee makes any complaint of harassment at work, how will the manager deal with it? These are few examples of ethical issues regarding employee behavior. Supplier/Customer Relations: must consider whether it is ethical to do business with other business workers who have unethical practices. References: Ethical Studies Second Edition, Bob Bowie, Robert Bowie, Edition 2, illustrated, Publisher Nelson Thornes, 2004 Ethical Issues in Youth Work, Professional ethics, Sarah Banks, Taylor Francis, 2010 Ethical Issues in Business: Inquiries, Cases, and Readings, Peg Tittle, Broadview Press, 2000 Current Issues in Business Ethics, Peter W. F. Davies, Routledge, 1997 Task 2 Learning Outcome 2 (750 Words) What is an objective? Explain how the objectives of a business can be affected by ethical considerations An objective can be described as particular future state of things to be achieved by the business. This could be described as a desired destination or result. In business, it is usually expressed in terms of profit. There can be business or long term objectives and functional or short term objectives. Market standing, productivity, innovation, financial resources, profitability, manager or other workers performance and also public and social responsibility will be the business or long term objectives. While profit, customer orientation, survival and growth, increase in the sales, increase in the market share and efficiency are all functional or short term objectives. How far the company or a business will go to achieve these objectives varies from one business to the other. There are so many legal and ethical issues to be aware of. For example, the company wants to grow and make more profits. They have found a defect in the product they are selling but people are buying it and have had no complaints so far. It is against the moral and ethics to keep selling that product. Another example can be if a business is providing expert help like consultation to the public. If the person is not adequately trained and not authorised to provide that help, this is also unethical. This may be bringing in the desired profits and also the company is booming with clients. But is the employers responsibility to understand that this conduct is against the ethics. Examples of a range of business stakeholders and how to promote ethical behavior in respect of these stakeholders. Stakeholder groups vary both in terms of their interest in the business activities and also their power to influence business decisions. Shareholders are important as their interests would be profit growth, share price growth, dividends. They have the power to elect the directors. It might be a practice to keep them happy with materialistic gifts and rewards but it is unethical and a good business should be staying away from such practices. Banks other lenders are important as stakeholders. They help the business by providing the money. We have to take into account the ethical consideration while dealing with the banks and other lenders. There job is to see thet interest and principal to be repaid, maintain credit rating. They can enforce loan covenants and withdraw banking facilities. Directors and managers as stakeholders have important role to play. They deal with salary, share options and job satisfaction. They also make decisions, have detailed information about the company. Employees are a big part of the group as stakeholders. To promote ethical behaviour, salaries wages, job security, job satisfaction motivation should be appropriate. If it is ethical, the result would be good turnover, industrial action and better service quality. Suppliers would be interested in long term contracts, prompt payment, and growth of purchasing. We should take ethics into consideration while deciding pricing, quality, product availability Customers play indispensable part as stakeholders. They will always expect reliable quality, value for money, product availability and customer service. This is when ethics come into play. Many businesses will go to any limit to please their customers because they will generate revenue. If the customers are happy, they will spread word of mouth recommendation. Community is also important as a stakeholder. Business people must ensure that the business is safe and is in accordance with health and safety rules and regulations. It is unethical to run a business which does not comply with these rules. Environment has to be safe. A business should generate local jobs which will help to provide employment to the people in the area. Government is also a stakeholder as the higher authorities will make the laws and these must be followed at all times by the business people. For establishing an ethical standard for business it is important that we have more than just a written policy. So that we can ensure that ethical standard is being met, we must comply with adherence to and enforcement of that standard by everyone. That includes who have written the policies and who run the business. More than long written documents and policies handed out to every single employee, our behavior, practices, and deeds are the foundation for creating an ethical standard. References: Marketing Plans: How to Prepare Them, How to Use Them, Malcolm McDonald, Hugh Wilson, John Wiley Sons, 2011 Introduction to Travel and Tourism Marketing, J. Alf Bennett, J.W. Strydom, J.A. Bennett, Juta and Company Ltd, 2001 Give examples of a range of business stakeholders. What can businesses do to promote ethical behavior in respect of these stakeholders? Tack 3 Learning Outcome 3 (750 Words) A moral agent and is it true to say that a business is a moral agent? A moral agent is a being that is capable of acting with reference to right and wrong. We can also describe moral agent as anything that can be held responsible for behavior or decisions. Moral agents have rights and responsibilities. If we do not believe that anything or anyone should ever be blamed or has the responsibility, then we are going against the concept of moral agency, and not accepting the concept of responsibilities and rights. A moral agent must be a living creature, as they must be able to understand the basic moral principles and use them to make decisions. They must have self-consciousness, ability to memorize, moral principles, values and the ability for reasoning and making judgments. In my opinion, increasingly, businesses are being seen not just as profit making entities but also as moral agents. They are accountable for their conduct to the employees, customers, investors and suppliers. Companies are chartered as citizens of the state or the nation so they have the same responsibilities and rights as individuals. Society holds the companies accountable for the behavior of their employees. When certain business advertises about them, they refer to benefits, compensation or competitive practices; they earn a reputation as a moral agent. Companies are required to obey rules and regulations that define acceptable business conduct. Though obviously not a person, a business can be considered as a societal moral agent. If a business is not run ethically, it could face huge penalties or fines from the regulatory bodies. Businesses to get their employees involved and empowered in relation to the ethical performance of the business. Businesses should endeavor to get their employees involved, especially in relation to the ethical performance of the business. Employee involvement and participation are aimed at raising employees performance and commitment. There should be nice policies outlined for each business and all the employees should be well aware of those policies and guidelines. Each individual in the company should have clear understanding of their roles and therefore be able to work ethically. There should be frequent meetings and discussions between the employer and the employees. Any issues which are unclear or employees are in doubt about their role in ethical consideration; they should be able to get help at all times. Full training should be provided to people so that their role in the business is clear and they know what defines their job roles. In order for the business to perform well and maintains high ethical standards, employees should be fully involved. This task should not be limited to one or few individuals but it necessitates teamwork. Each employee should be the part of the team which is working towards the common goal of a profitable business but not at the cost of ethics. Recent business scandals have drawn public attention toward the ethics of businesses. Although researchers have shown a small correlation between the ethical activities and firm financial performance, its not clear how the process works. When individuals see their company is maintaining higher ethical standards, they become more committed to the company. This commitment in turns starts organizational citizenship behaviors toward other employees, and these behaviors in turn gradually lead to better financial performance. The level of an individuals involvement with his or her employer is the strongest mechanism by which business ethics leads to financial rewards. When a company produces and adheres to strong ethical guidelines, this offers employees a clear idea of whats expected of them on the job. Less job ambiguity leads to greater productivity. Employees should help each other. Employees going above and beyond their job descriptions to help each other, such as helping others who are behind on their work-is one of the main process that will lead to good productivity. This type of behaviour proves beneficial as it means key activities get done, regardless of whos doing them. We must use a code of ethics and guidelines in accordance with legal and professional standards in addition to human resource practices such as ethics training. Employer should always be patient and calm. They must realise that some of the new employees will take some time to get adjusted to the new environment. After full training, they will all be working towards the common goal of financial success. So it is vital that employees get involved and empowered in relation to the ethical performance of the business. References: Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making Cases, O. C. Ferrell, John Fraedrich, Ferrell, Cengage Learning, 2012 Ethical Issues in Contemporary Human Resource Management, Diana Winstanley, Jean Woodall, Palgrave Macmillan, 2000 Task 4 Learning Outcome 4 (1250words) Choose an ethical issue which currently affects business of your choice. Do some research on this and explain it. How do you think the business you have chosen could improve the ethics of its operations whilst meeting objectives and ensuring good employer/employee relationships? The business I have chosen is a private learning centre or an academy. This academy offers many vocational courses to different students. The centre is not working ethically. They get to know the question papers well in advance and they offer help to the students during their final exams. Students are not complaining because they are getting excellent results because of the help being provided. One other main cause for ethical consideration is that the teachers are not fully qualified to be able to deliver the courses. Business is running successfully and also making lot of money. It is easy to attract lots of students who want to pass their exam in an easy manner without any hard work involved. Under qualified teachers are charging less money to the employer so in this situation, the employer, employee and the service users are all happy. But let us discuss this by taking ethics into consideration. For example a student has done first aid course and now he is the proud owner of a certificate too. But the main question is that will be able to handle the situation in case of an emergency. To improve the ethics of its operations and also ensure that the centre is meeting objectives and ensuring good employer/employee relationship, a lot needs to be done at the centre. Employer must realise that this is unethical. Exams should be held in strict conditions and no help should be offered to the students at all. It is unethical and against the law. If any inspection agency knows about it the whole business could face serious charges and risk closure. Then the students future would also suffer. This business could improve a lot by considering each aspect of their business ethically. Offering help to the students and employing under qualified teachers is against the law. This will not lead to brighter students. And this private company is not doing any good. These serious issues need to be considered and thought over and strict action needs to be taken against this company. Teachers should be fully qualified and suitably trained. The exams should be held in a transparent manner with no help provided. Practice classes should be offered to the students, if needed. If the students can afford, they should be offered help with their syllabus and practice sessions. What is a code of ethics? Design a suitable ethical code for an organization of your choice. A business should recognize its obligation to set and uphold the highest standards of professionalism, and to promote ethical behaviour, attitudes and judgments. Code of ethics should focus on multiple relationships where the employer owes an allegiance to different stakeholders; Personal relationships should be adequately emphasized in code of ethics- where the employer infringes or violates the trust of a client or clients; Code of ethics should clearly mention unclear or inadequate standards of practice where the the emplyer is unaware of or disregards the current systems in use by peers or others in similar work. Breaches of confidentiality should definitely be elaborated where rules and constraints were broken or not clarified in advance with stakeholders; Competence where excessive or misleading claims are made or where inadequate safeguards and monitoring exist for new areas of work; these must form an essential part of the code of ethics. I have designed a suitable code of ethics for a company called ABC Learning Academy. It is a private institute which provides vocational courses to the students. Mostly adult learners and the staff constitute of director, board members, managers, teachers, administrators, cleaners and helpers. This code of ethics would guide the staff members in times of difficulty and lays a strong foundation of ethics which need to be considered while making any decisions at workplace. Conduct Personal behaviour it is expected that all staff members will: Act ethically and integrity, in the best interests of ABC Learning Academy at all times; Take individual responsibility to contribute actively to maintain adequate teaching and administrative standards. Honesty is the best policy at all times, Position should not be used inappropriately to influence or discriminate amongst the employees. Must comply with at least 75% attendance; In case of any doubt, always ask for help from your colleagues or senior members of the staff, Take decisions fairly and promptly, considering all available information, legislation, policies and procedures, be impartial at all times; Treat colleagues with respect, courtesy, honesty and fairness; Not to discriminate against colleagues, members of the public and/or employees; not to harass or bully anyone. These matters would be dealt seriously; have proper regard for colleagues interests, rights, safety and welfare, professional workplace relationships to maintain harmonious, safe and productive environment; Conflicts of interest it is expected that staff members will: Not disclose any personal or business interests at ABC Learning Academy; Ensure personal or financial interests do not affect their ability to take ethical decisions at work, Not allow personal or financial interests, or the interests of any associated person, to conflict with the interests of ABC Learning Academy. Manage and declare any conflict between their personal and public duty; and Where conflicts of interest do arise, public interest should be the priority. Communication and official information it is expected that staff members will: Communicate amongst them so that there are no gaps in information available about students and their data. Not disclose official information or documents like students records, assignments, individual learning plans, other than as required by law or where agreed by decision of the board; Not make any unauthorised public statements regarding the business of ABC Learning Academy; Support, adhere to and not contradict the formal decisions of the final decisions made by ABC Learning Academy. Respect the confidentiality and privacy of all information of students and staff. Use of public resources it is expected that board members will: Act in a financially responsible manner, use judgment to analyse financial reports, audit reports and other financial material that comes before the ABC Learning Academy; and Ensure the efficient use of publicly-funded resources, including office facilities and equipment, vehicles, transport, ABC Learning Academy credit cards. In addition, staff members must commit to: Understand their responsibility to report any happenings of misconduct which they may be suspicious of or aware of, Taking responsibility for contributing in a constructive, respectful and enthusiastic way to enhance good management and the reputation of the board of ABC Learning Academy. Research issues including fake data, inability to obtain consent, or not acknowledging somebodys piece of work. Health problems should be reported adequately because they can have significant impact on the work efficiency.

Hypothyroidism Thyroid Hormone

Hypothyroidism Thyroid Hormone Hypothyroidism 1 Information on Hypothyroidism Hypothyroidism 2 What is hypothyroidism? Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland fails to produce enough thyroid hormone. What are the causes of hypothyroidism? Some common causes of hypothyroidism are the failure of the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone called TSH, to stimulate the thyroid gland, congenital birth defects, surgical removal of the thyroid gland or inflammatory conditions, and iodine deficiency. The most common cause of hypothyroidism is called Hashimotos thyroiditis. This is an autoimmune disease which develops antibodies against its own thyroid gland cells. Some other factors that contribute to hypothyroidism includes female gender, obesity, thyroid surgery, and exposure of the neck to X-ray or radiation. How is hypothyroidism diagnosed? Hypothyroidism can be detected through a simple blood test. In this blood test, the doctor will compare your TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) level. A low T4 and a high TSH level indicates hypothyroidism. This is the best and most reliable way . What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism? The symptoms of hypothyroidism are: low energy, constant tiredness, depression, dizziness, weight gain, despite loss of appetite, ankle swelling, anemia, and goiter (enlarged thyroid). Symptoms of hypothyroidism can range from mild to severe. Some symptoms may go unnoticed or dismissed for more simpler conditions. What are the complications from hypothyroidism? Hypothyroidism 3 People with hypothyroidism may not have any symptoms at all. In some people, hypothyroidism can lead to heart disease, increased risk of infection, infertility, and miscarriage. The most severe complication is myxedema coma, which is a medical emergency that occurs when the bodys level of thyroid hormones become extremely low. If not treated with intravenous thyroid hormones and steroid therapy, it can be fatal. How is hypothyroidism treated? The most effective treatment for hypothyroidism is thyroid hormone supplementation. Levothyroxine is the most commonly used medication. Based on a persons TSH level, proper dosage is given in the form of a tablet. This medication is taken throughout a persons life. Thyroid hormone levels should be checked yearly to make sure the dosage is the correct amount. Can hypothyroidism be prevented? There is no prevention for hypothyroidism; however, screening tests in newborns can detect congential hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism 4 References Hypothyroidism. ( 2008). Retrieved January 8, 2008, from Endocrine Website: http:// www.endocrineweb.com/hypo1.html Hypothyroidism. (2008). Retrieved January 29, 2008, from Health Encyclopedia: http:// www.healthscout.com/ency/68/34/main.html Hypothyroidism.(2008). Retrieved January 30, 2008, from Mayo Clinic website: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hypothyroidism/DS00353 Hypothyroidism.(2008) Retrieved January 30, 2008 from Medline Plus website: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000353.htm

Left Behind :: essays research papers

This book is about the Tribulation period that takes place after the Rapture of the church. It begins on an airplane; people suddenly disappear leaving nothing but their clothes, jewelry, etc. The airplane pilot, Rayford Steele, is the main character. Non-believers of Jesus Christ and his followers are terrified and frightened as they try to figure out what has happened to their loved ones. Rayford Steele is directed back to his airport. Flights across the world are grounded, due to the car accidents, sudden disappearances, and believe it or not, plane crashes. His wife and his son, in the earlier days had become very strong Christians. As he lands the 7-47, a thought crosses Rayford’s mind is my wife still here, are my kids okay, is my family still alive? Guilt came upon him, thus he was struggling with his marriage, and he thought about having an affair with his head stewardess, Hattie. Hattie befriends a young journalist on the plane and they try to make contacts with their families after the Rapture. They plan to keep in touch after the plane lands. After hours of confusion and turmoil passes, Rayford makes his way home. Only to find his wife and son missing, their clothes being the only piece of evidence left. When the dramatic feeling sets in, he contacts his daughter, Chloe, and right away she makes her way home. In desperate need of answers, Chloe and Rayford search for answers about these mysterious cases of disappearance. Suddenly, Rayford remember his wife talking about what the Christians called â€Å"The Rapture†, she was always bringing up how they would vanish from the face of the earth. Rayford took her for granted and forgot about it completely. Everything she said began to make more and more sense, so to find the rational explanations he needed to answer these prophecies, he picked up the Holy Bible. Rayford took the next step; he went to his wife's church to find Bruce, who was also too proud to accept a word the Christians had said before the Rapture. Bruce gives Rayford a video of explanation for the Rapture and Rayford studied it. In the tape, he learns that the Rapture is the event in where Jesus takes his followers, known as the Christians and brings them to heaven, where the Christians will receive eternal life. At the end of the video Rayford Steele then received the Lord God into his heart and became a Christian. Left Behind :: essays research papers This book is about the Tribulation period that takes place after the Rapture of the church. It begins on an airplane; people suddenly disappear leaving nothing but their clothes, jewelry, etc. The airplane pilot, Rayford Steele, is the main character. Non-believers of Jesus Christ and his followers are terrified and frightened as they try to figure out what has happened to their loved ones. Rayford Steele is directed back to his airport. Flights across the world are grounded, due to the car accidents, sudden disappearances, and believe it or not, plane crashes. His wife and his son, in the earlier days had become very strong Christians. As he lands the 7-47, a thought crosses Rayford’s mind is my wife still here, are my kids okay, is my family still alive? Guilt came upon him, thus he was struggling with his marriage, and he thought about having an affair with his head stewardess, Hattie. Hattie befriends a young journalist on the plane and they try to make contacts with their families after the Rapture. They plan to keep in touch after the plane lands. After hours of confusion and turmoil passes, Rayford makes his way home. Only to find his wife and son missing, their clothes being the only piece of evidence left. When the dramatic feeling sets in, he contacts his daughter, Chloe, and right away she makes her way home. In desperate need of answers, Chloe and Rayford search for answers about these mysterious cases of disappearance. Suddenly, Rayford remember his wife talking about what the Christians called â€Å"The Rapture†, she was always bringing up how they would vanish from the face of the earth. Rayford took her for granted and forgot about it completely. Everything she said began to make more and more sense, so to find the rational explanations he needed to answer these prophecies, he picked up the Holy Bible. Rayford took the next step; he went to his wife's church to find Bruce, who was also too proud to accept a word the Christians had said before the Rapture. Bruce gives Rayford a video of explanation for the Rapture and Rayford studied it. In the tape, he learns that the Rapture is the event in where Jesus takes his followers, known as the Christians and brings them to heaven, where the Christians will receive eternal life. At the end of the video Rayford Steele then received the Lord God into his heart and became a Christian.

Motivation in the Classroom Essay -- Teaching Education

Motivation in the Classroom Students want and need work that enables them to demonstrate and improve their sense of themselves as competent and successful human beings. This is the drive toward mastery. But success, while highly valued in our society, can be more or less motivational. People who are highly creative, for example, actually experience failure far more often than success. Biehler (p. 225) claims that studies show that when CAI used in conjunction with a teacher's lessons, is particularly beneficial for low-achieving and young students. Before we can use success to motivate our students to produce high-quality work, we must meet three conditions: 1. We must clearly articulate the criteria for success and provide clear, immediate, and constructive feedback. 2. We must show students that the skills they need to be successful are within their grasp by clearly and systematically modeling these skills. 3. We must help them see success as a valuable aspect of their personalities. All this seems obvious enough, but it is remarkable how often we fail to meet these conditions for our students. Take skills. Can you remember any crucial skills that you felt you did not successfully master because they were not clearly taught? Was it finding themes in literature? Reading and interpreting primary texts? Thinking through nonroutine math problems? Typically, skills like these are routinely assigned or assumed, rather than systematically modeled or practiced by teachers. So how can we help students master such skills? When teaching your students to find themes, for example, deliberately model interpretation. Ask your students to give you a poem you have never seen, and then interpret it both for and with them. If they are reading primary texts, use what we call the "main idea" strategy. Teach them how to find the topic (usually a noun or noun phrase), the main idea (a sentence that states the text's position on the topic), and reasons or evidence to support the main idea. If students are concerned about writer's block, remember that perhaps the most difficult task of a teacher is to teach how to think creatively. In regards to behavior modification it's noted in Biehler(p.237), in the case of primary students there is a possibility that some students will come to realize that the teacher rewards them only when they've done what she... ... arouses intense curiosity? By making sure it features two defining characteristics: the information about a topic is fragmentary or contradictory, and the topic relates to students' personal lives. Students then work together in-groups, retracing the steps scientists took in weighing the available evidence to arrive at an explanation. We have seen student’s work diligently for several days dealing with false hypotheses and red herrings, taking great delight when the solutions begin to emerge. As for topics that relate to students' lives, the connection here cannot be superficial; it must involve an issue or idea that is both manageable and unresolved. We must ask, With what issues are adolescents wrestling? How can we connect them to our curriculum? Figure 1 illustrates some possibilities for adolescents. Bibliography: References Snowman, Jack/Biehler, Robert (2000) Psychology Applied to Teaching Houghton Mifflin Co. Colin, Baker (1996) Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism Multilingual Matters (pgs 105-143) Cummins, Jim (1996) Negotiating Identities: Education for Empowerment in a Diverse Society California Association for Bilingual Education

Karl Marxs Estranged Labor Essay example -- essays research papers fc

Karl Marx's Estranged Labor In Karl Marx's early writing on "estranged labor" there is a clear and prevailing focus on the plight of the laborer. Marx's writing on estranged labor is an attempt to draw a stark distinction between property owners and workers. In the writing Marx argues that the worker becomes estranged from his labor because he is not the recipient of the product he creates. As a result labor is objectified, that is labor becomes the object of mans existence. As labor is objectified man becomes disillusioned and enslaved. Marx argues that man becomes to be viewed as a commodity worth only the labor he creates and man is further reduced to a subsisting animal void of any capacity of freedom except the will to labor. For Marx this all leads to the emergence of private property, the enemy of the proletariat. In fact Marx's writing on estranged labor is a repudiation of private property- a warning of how private property enslaves the worker. This writing on estranged labor is an obvious point of basis for Marx's Communist Manifesto. The purpose of this paper is to view Marx's concept of alienation (estranged labor) and how it limits freedom. For Marx man's freedom is relinquished or in fact wrested from his true nature once he becomes a laborer. This process is thoroughly explained throughout Estranged Labor. This study will reveal this process and argue it's validity. Appendant to this study on alienation there will be a micro-study which will attempt to ascertain Marx's view of freedom (i.e. positive or negative). The study on alienation in conjunction with the micro-study on Marx's view of freedom will help not only reveal why Marx feels labor limits mans freedom, but it will also identify exactly what kind of freedom is being limited. Karl Marx identifies estranged labor as labor alien to man. Marx explains the condition of estranged labor as the result of man participating in an institution alien to his nature. It is my interpretation that man is alienated from his labor because he is not the reaper of what he sows. Because he is never the recipient of his efforts the laborer lacks identity with what he creates. For Marx then labor is "alien to the worker...[and]...does not belong to his essential being." Marx identifies two expla... ...gative liberty. He states "...[private] property is...the right to enjoy ones fortune and dispose of it as one will; without regard for other men and independently of society." Private property for Marx is the mechanism by which man can be separate from other men and pursue his (negative) liberty. Marx's writings on estranged labor and in The Communist Manifesto are a clear repudiation of private property. What can be deduced then is that Marx does not favor negative liberties. Negative liberties require private property to exist and private property is for Marx the enslaver of the proletariat. With negative freedom eliminated from the discussion we are left with Positive or prescribed freedoms. Positive freedom, as was identified above, is the freedom to pursue specified options. That is, freedom to do certain things. Man is not necessarily given a choice of what these options are, he is simply free to pursue them whatever they may be. Positive freedoms then are the freedoms Marx likely wishes to uphold by denouncing estranged labor.Bibliography Bibliography 1Marx, Karl, The Early Marx, 2Marx, Karl and Engles, Freidrich, The Communist Manifesto, London, England, 1888

A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health with Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin

Journal of International Medical Research http://imr. sagepub. com/ A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health with Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz and G Fotopoulos Journal of International Medical Research 2009 37: 1 DOI: 10. 1177/147323000903700101 The online version of this article can be found at: http://imr. sagepub. com/content/37/1/1 Published by: http://www. sagepublications. com Additional services and information for Journal of International Medical Research can be found at: Email Alerts: http://imr. agepub. com/cgi/alerts Subscriptions: http://imr. sagepub. com/subscriptions Reprints: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsReprints. nav Permissions: http://www. sagepub. com/journalsPermissions. nav >> Version of Record – Feb 1, 2009 What is This? Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 The Journal of International Medical Research 2009; 37: 1 – 17 A Review of the Role of Soluble Fiber in Health wit h Specific Reference to Wheat Dextrin JL SLAVIN1, V SAVARINO2, A PAREDES-DIAZ3* 1 AND G FOTOPOULOS4Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota, USA; 2 Department of Internal Medicine, Gastroenterology Unit, Genoa, Italy; 3Novartis Consumer Health, Parsippany, New Jersey, USA; 4Novartis Consumer Health, Nyon, Switzerland dextrin, based on a search of PubMed. The evidence suggests that soluble fibers help to regulate the digestive system, may increase micronutrient absorption, stabilize blood glucose and lower serum lipids, may prevent several gastrointestinal disorders, and have an accepted role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease.It is concluded that supplementation with soluble fibers (e. g. wheat dextrin) may be useful in individuals at risk of a lower than recommended dietary fiber intake. ACIDS; Dietary fiber is widely recognized to have a beneficial role in overall health, but only at adequate levels (25 – 38 g/day for he althy adults). Wheat dextrin in particular is a soluble fiber that can easily be added to the diet and is widely used in the food industry. There is some debate about whether increased intake of soluble fibers leads to health benefits.This paper reviews the evidence regarding the physiological effects and potential health benefits of the addition of soluble dietary fibers, with specific reference to wheat KEY WORDS: SOLUBLE FIBER; WHEAT DEXTRIN; SHORT-CHAIN FATTY PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS; HEALTH BENEFITS PREBIOTICS; Introduction Fiber, the indigestible part of plants such as cereals, fruits and vegetables (Table 1), has a fundamental role in the regulation of the digestive system and may help to prevent troublesome disorders such as constipation,1 – 3 diarrhea4 – 6 and irritable bowel syndrome. – 9 Fiber may also help to regulate the absorption of micronutrients,3,10,11 stabilize glucose12 – 14 and cholesterol levels,15 – 17 have a role in cardiovascu lar health18 – 20 and possibly help to prevent some forms of cancer. 21 – 23 *Current address: 90 Possum Way, New Providence, NJ 07974, USA. Many nutrition and healthcare professionals use the terms ‘soluble’ and ‘insoluble’ fibers for nutrition labeling. 24 – 27 Soluble fibers dissolve in water and usually form a gel.They are generally fermented by bacteria in the lower intestine, but they are indigestible and hence not absorbed into the bloodstream. 24,28 Soluble fibers also ferment to form short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) such as butyrate, acetate and propionate (Table 2). 17,29 – 34 Short-chain fatty acids generate approximately 1 – 2 kcal/g of ingested fiber, so are used as an energy source by the intestinal Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 1 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber TABLE 1: Classification systems for fiber based on four different fibe r characteristics Dietary fibers Lignin (polyphenolic compound, in cell walls of woody plants and seeds) Cellulose (glucose polymer, in all plant cell walls) ? -Glucans (glucose polymers, in oats, barley) Hemicelluloses (polysaccharides, in plant cell walls) Pectins (viscous polysaccharides, in fruits and berries) Gums (viscous polysaccharides, in seeds; e. g. uar gum) Inulin and oligofructose (mixture of fructose chains, in plants such as onions) Resistant starch (starch in plant cell walls; inaccessible to human digestive enzymes; often found in bananas and legumes; may also be formed by food processing) Soluble fibers Wheat dextrin ? -Glucans Gums (e. g. guar gum, partially hydrolyzed guar gum) Mucilages (e. g. psyllium) Pectins Fructo-oligosaccharides Some hemicelluloses Sources: oat products, legumes (dry beans, peas, lentils) Fermentable fibers Wheat dextrin Pectins ? Glucans Guar gum Partially hydrolyzed guar gum Inulin and oligofructose Sources: oats, barley, fruits, vegetab les Viscous fibers Pectins ? -Glucans Some gums (e. g. guar gum) Mucilages (e. g. psyllium) Functional fibers Resistant dextrins (e. g. wheat dextrin) (indigestible polysaccharides formed when starch is heated and treated with enzymes; includes resistant maltodextrins) Psyllium (viscous mucilage, isolated from husks of psyllium seeds; also known as ispaghula husk) Chitin and chitosan (nondigestible carbohydrate from exoskeletons of crustaceans, e. . crabs, lobsters; deacetylation of chitin gives chitosan, a nondigestible glucosamine polymer) Fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS, short synthetic fructose) Polydextrose and polyols (synthetic polysaccharides used as bulking agents and sugar substitutes in foods) Insoluble fibers Cellulose Lignin Some pectins Some hemicelluloses Sources: wheat bran, some vegetables Non-fermentable fibers Cellulose Lignin Sources: cereal fibers rich in cellulose (e. g. wheat bran)Non-viscous fibers Cellulose Lignin Some hemicelluloses mucosa and are absorbed thr ough the colonic wall, where they are metabolized to produce energy or transported into the general circulation. 29 SCFAs also stimulate epithelial cell differentiation and proliferation. 29 Soluble fibers can also promote the growth of colonic Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 2 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiberTABLE 2: Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced by fermentable, soluble fiber17,29 – 34 Butyrate Widely recognized as the most significant acid in terms of its documented effects in the colon The preferred nutrient for the cells lining the colonic epithelium, in particular the distal colon and rectum The preferred substrate for colonocytes Positive effects on colonic mucosal growth, crypt cell proliferation, and early-response gene expression Acetate A fuel for skeletal and cardiac muscle, kidney and the brain A substrate for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis Propionate Metabolized by the l iver Only SCFA that can be a major source of glucose (after metabolism, used for energy production) May play a role in cholesterol lowering bacterial flora (prebiotic effect). 35 – 37 Insoluble fibers, on the other and, do not dissolve in water, are generally less fermentable by colonic microflora and are indigestible,26 so pass through the intestines almost intact. Insoluble fibers have passive water-attracting properties that help to normalize large bowel function by acting like a sponge, pulling water into the stool and making it easier to pass. 38 They may also decelerate intestinal transit time, increase fecal weight through bulk action, delay glucose absorption and help to control and balance the pH in the intestines. 39,40 In the USA, the daily intake recommended by the American Dietetic Association (ADA) is 20 – 35 g fiber/day for healthy adults, and ‘age plus 5 g/day’ for children. 6 The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends > 25 g/day,41 whi le the British Nutrition Foundation recommends 12 – 24 g/day for healthy adults. 42 The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine established the Adequate Intake (AI) recommendation for fiber (both soluble and insoluble),24 which ranges from 19 to 38 g/day for children, depending on age, and from 25 to 38 g/day for healthy adults. The majority of people, however, do not seem to achieve the recommended daily intake of fiber, and women in general seem to consume lower amounts than men. 43,44 Wheat dextrin is a soluble fiber that has been widely used in the food industry because it has a low viscosity and so has a good consistency when added to water, beverages or soft food. 4 It is formed by heating wheat starch at high temperature, followed by enzymatic (amylase) treatment to form a resistant starch. 24,45 It qualifies as a dietary fiber because the non-digestible glucoside linkages (Fig. 1) lead to incomplete hydrolysation, so that only a small percentage of wheat dextrin is absorbed in the small intestine and the rest is slowly fermented in the large intestine. 3 This review aims to assess the evidence regarding the physiological effects and potential health benefits of supplementing the diet with soluble fibers, with specific reference to wheat dextrin. Data source The PubMed database (US National Library Downloaded from imr. sagepub. om by guest on March 27, 2013 3 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber CH2OH O OH O OH O CH2OH O OH HO O CH2 O OH O OH O OH CH2OH O OH O OH CH2OH O OH OH O OH OH O OH O OH HO 1:2 bond O O CH2OH O OH CH2OH O O OH OH O OH 1:3 bond CH2OH O OH O CH2 O OH O HO CH2OH O OH 1:6 bond O CH2 O H2 C O O CH2OH O CH2OH O OH O HO OH FIGURE 1: Chemical structure of wheat dextrin of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA) was searched (to July 2007) using the terms ‘wheat dextrin’ and ‘soluble fiber’, and studies were selected based on wh ether they evaluated the physiological or clinical effects of soluble fibers.Although this non-systematic approach limits the review in that a quantitative analysis was not performed, it does allow a general and potentially useful overview of the effects of supplementation with soluble fibers. Physiological effects of soluble fibers FERMENTABILITY In vitro fermentation of wheat dextrin, inulin and partially hydrolysed guar gum (PHGG), and analysis of the resulting SCFA production over a 24-h period17 revealed that all three fibers demonstrated detectable fermentability. Acetate was the main SCFA produced by all fibers, accounting for about 50% of the total SCFA. Over 24 h, wheat dextrin produced substantially more total SCFA, propionate and butyrate than PHGG, which consistently showed lower fermentability at all time points (Fig. 2A – 2C).To reduce gas production (which can be socially undesirable and cause uncomfortable bloating), extensive fermentation at 24 h is desirable , while fast fermentation (e. g. high values at 4 h) may be undesirable. The total amount of SCFA produced by wheat dextrin at 4 h was just over half the amount produced by glucose Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 4 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber A Concentration ( µmol/ml) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 B Concentration ( µmol/ml) 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 C Concentration ( µmol/ml) 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 4 8 12 Time since start of fermentation (h) 24 Wheat dextrin PHGG Inulin F97 GlucoseFIGURE 2: Analysis of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production following in vitro fermentation of wheat dextrin, partially hydrolysed guar gum (PHGG) inulin and glucose (positive control) over 24 h: (A) total SCFA production; (B) butyrate production; and (C) propionate production17 (positive control) and almost half the amount produced by inulin at the same time point (Fig. 2A). The fermentation of wheat dextrin, therefore, occurred slowly over 24 h, so its consumption was less likely to result in the gas production that can occur as a result of rapid fiber fermentation. composition towards a more beneficial distribution. 17,46 For example, the consumption of fructo-oligosaccharides led to an increase in fecal bifidobacteria,36,47,48 while ingestion of polydextrose resulted in a dosedependent decrease in bacteriodes and an increase in beneficial lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. 49 Administration of PHGG for 3 weeks increased the Lactobacillus spp count in feces. 0 Consumption of wheat dextrin led to a lower colonic pH, an increase in the fecal concentration of glucosidases, a statistically significant increase in the beneficial lactobacilli population and a statistically significant decrease in pathogenic Clostridium perfringens. 35 In another study, wheat dextrin increased the fecal concentration of glu cosidase;45,51 increased glucosidase activity is considered beneficial to the host and is linked to substrate fermentation leading to more SCFAs and lactic acid production. PREBIOTIC EFFECT The SCFAs produced by soluble fermentable fibers are moderately strong acids (pK 4. 8)29 and so they lower colonic pH. Lowering the pH in the large ntestine may support the growth of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli because they have a strong intrinsic resistance to acid and the lower pH may help to prevent the growth of pH-sensitive pathogenic bacteria such as clostridia. 30 Many soluble fermentable fibers have demonstrated a significant prebiotic effect and alter the intestinal microflora Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 5 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber EFFECT ON LAXATION AND REGULARITY The formation of SCFAs helps to improve laxation and regularity by increasing fecal bulk and weight and increasing the waterholding c apacity (and thus the hydration) of feces. 0,46 The increase in fecal bulk and weight results from the presence of fiber, the water that the fiber holds and the partial fermentation of the fiber, which increases the amount of bacteria in the feces. 52 Studies have confirmed that consumption of the soluble fibers inulin or oligofructose result in an increase in fecal weight,53 while inulin helped to reduce constipation2 and polydextrose increased fecal mass and sometimes stool frequency. 49,54 Consumption of psyllium significantly increased stool frequency and stool weight, increased stool water content, improved stool consistency, increased the frequency of bowel movements and reduced pain on defecation. 55 – 59 Wheat dextrin significantly increased dry fecal output by 70% (P < 0. 02) and wet fecal output by 45% (P < 0. 05) (Fig. 3). The increase in wet fecal output was due to increased dry matter output (38%) and increased water output (62%). IMPROVED NUTRIENT/MINERAL ABSORP TION Although dietary fibers are traditionally thought to decrease mineral absorption, animal models and human studies have demonstrated that soluble fermentable fibers appear to increase the absorption of certain minerals. 3,10,60 – 62 For example, soluble fibers may increase calcium absorption through the increased production of SCFAs, with an increase in the villus crypt height, number of epithelial cells per crypt, cecal vein flow and mucosal-to-serosal calcium fluxes and stimulation of the expression of calbindinD9K, thereby enhancing the active calcium transport route. 3 Soluble fibers may also increase the absorption of other minerals such as magnesium, zinc and iron. 3,10,11 Studies in rats showed that the absorption of calcium, magnesium and/or zinc may be enhanced by guar gum,64 inulin,10,65 oligofructose65 and PHGG. 11 In healthy men supplemented with either wheat dextrin or dextrose (100 g/day), ingestion of wheat dextrin significantly increased magnesium apparent absorption (50. 9%, P = 0. 001) and retention (30. 9 mg/day, P = 0. 024) and tended 80 P < 0. 02 70 60 Increase (%) 50 40 30 20 10 0 Wet fecal output FIGURE 3: Effect of wheat dextrin on fecal output3 Dry fecal output P < 0. 05 45% 70% Downloaded from imr. sagepub. om by guest on March 27, 2013 6 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber (not statistically significant) to increase calcium apparent absorption (37. 4%) and retention (111 mg/day) (Table 3). 3 prandial plasma glucose concentrations (–13 mg, P = 0. 04) and a significant reduction in the urinary excretion of glucose (P = 0. 008) compared with the low-fiber diet. 13 In fact, the effects of fiber on glucose concentrations are most evident in individuals with diabetes mellitus and it has been suggested that diabetics should consume 25 – 50 g/day of dietary fiber, with ? 55% of their calorie intake coming from carbohydrate. 4 To assess the effect of fiber on the risk for diabetes, more than 65 000 women (40 – 65 years of age) were followed for 6 years; it was found that dietary glycemic index and glycemic load were positively associated with the development of type 2 diabetes, and dietary fiber was inversely associated. 75 Beyond the effects of fiber on post-prandial glucose and insulin, fiber alters the responses and actions of the gut hormones gastric inhibitory peptide,76 glucagon-like peptide177 and cholecystokinin (CCK). 78 CCK is a peptide hormone and neurotransmitter that regulates gut motility, gall bladder contraction and pancreatic enzyme secretion and may mediate the post-prandial glycemic and insulinemic response to viscous fibers. A direct correlation has been reported between post-prandial CCK and subjective satiety scores following ingestion of foods with varying amounts of fiber. 79,80 DECREASED GLYCEMIA AND INSULINEMIAThrough the production of SCFAs, soluble fibers can stimulate pancreatic insulin release and affect liver con trol of glycogen breakdown,66,67 and so may be effective in decreasing blood glucose and insulin levels and improving glycemic and insulinemic indices. 68 Guar gum,69,70 inulin12 and dextrin71 were all found to improve postprandial glycemia. In healthy subjects, the glycemic index of wheat dextrin was 25% compared with dextrose and the insulin response with wheat dextrin was also low at 13% compared with dextrose. 14 Resistant dextrins led to reduced blood glucose concentrations and insulin secretion in rats after sucrose or maltose loading,72,73 reduced the post-prandial blood glucose concentrations in healthy men and women,13 and significantly reduced fasting blood glucose concentrations in type 2 diabetics. 6 In patients with type 2 diabetes given a diet high (25 g soluble plus 25 g insoluble fiber) or low (8 g soluble plus 16 g insoluble fiber) in total fiber, the high-fiber diet resulted in significantly lower pre- TABLE 3: Effect of wheat dextrin supplementation (100 g/day) on the absorption and retention of magnesium and calcium in healthy men3 Dextrose diet Calcium Apparent absorption, mean, mg/day (%) Retention, mean, mg/day Magnesium Apparent absorption, mean, mg/day (%) Retention, mean, mg/day 187 (28. 8) 39. 3 65 (30. 4) –0. 3 Wheat dextrin diet 269 (37. 4) 111 117 (50. 9) 30. 9 Statistical significance (P-value) 0. 093 0. 122 0. 001 0. 024 Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 7 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber REDUCED CHOLESTEROL LEVELS The SFCAs can suppress cholesterol synthesis by the liver and may reduce serum levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides. 81 Soluble, viscous fibers are also thought to exert their hypocholesterolemic action by increasing fecal sterol excretion and stimulating hepatic bile acid synthesis. 82,83 In a metaanalysis of 67 controlled trials, consumption of 2 – 10 g/day of fiber (i. e. pectin, oat bran, gua r gum, psyllium) reduced total cholesterol by 4% and LDL-C by 7% compared with placebo. 15 No significant effect was observed on serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and triacylglycerol concentrations.A greater reduction in serum total cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations was also noted in type 2 diabetics who consumed 60 g/day resistant dextrin compared with type 2 diabetics or healthy adults who consumed 30 g/day. 16 No difference was observed in the concentration of HDL-C. A diet high in total fiber (25 g soluble plus 25 g insoluble fiber) led to significantly reduced plasma total cholesterol (P = 0. 02), very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-C) (P = 0. 01) and triglyceride (P = 0. 02) concentrations compared with a low-fiber diet, indicating that high fiber intake, especially soluble fiber, improves plasma lipid profile. 3 It has also been proposed that soluble fermentable fibers may lead to a reduction of cholesterol levels via the increased amo unts of propionate produced during their fermentation by the commensal bacteria, because propionate may inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis. 84 Fibers producing high amounts of SCFAs (particularly propionate), such as wheat dextrin, may help to sustain cholesterol levels within the normal range. 17 The cholesterol-lowering effects of wheat dextrin have been demonstrated in animal trials. 85 The findings suggest that its cholesterol-lowering effect is likely to be related to reduced cholesterol and bile salt absorption. However, not all soluble fibers are hypocholesterolemic agents; for example, oat bran has been shown to lower serum lipids while wheat bran did not. 81 IMMUNE FUNCTIONIt is possible that SCFAs help to improve immune function, as they stimulate the production of T helper cells, antibodies, leukocytes and splenocyte cytokines, all of which have a crucial role in immune protection. 86,87 In addition, SCFAs improve the barrier properties of the colonic mucosal layer, thus in hibiting inflammatory and adhesion irritants. 88 – 90 Lactic-acid-forming bacteria competitively inhibit and/or suppress the growth of pathogenic bacteria, and may have a positive influence on immune function. 91,92 WEIGHT REDUCTION Obesity is associated with increased energy intake and decreased consumption of fiberrich foods,93 while fiber intake is inversely associated with body weight and body fat. 94 – 97 Increasing daily fiber intake is an effective way of providing a satiating effect. 8 Dietary fiber also decreases gastric emptying and/or slows energy and nutrient absorption (a fiber-rich meal, which is also usually richer in micronutrients, is processed more slowly and nutrient absorption occurs over a greater period of time99), leading to lower post-prandial glucose and lipid levels. Furthermore, addition of dietary fiber to a low-calorie diet has been shown to lead to a significantly greater weight loss (8. 0 kg) compared with placebo (5. 8 kg). 100 When post -menopausal women consumed higher fiber diets, this was associated with significant weight loss. 101 A high Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 8 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber carbohydrate diet consumed ad libitum (i. e. elf-regulating), without energy restriction or change in energy intake, caused significant body weight and body fat losses in older men and women, with a significant decrease in thigh fat area (P = 0. 003). 102 A review of the effects of increased fiber (high-fiber foods or supplementation) on hunger, satiety, energy intake and body weight revealed that controlled energy intake with increased dietary fiber led to an increase in post-meal satiety and a decrease in subsequent hunger. 103 With ad libitum energy intake, increased dietary fiber (14 g/day) resulted in an average 10% decrease in energy intake and 1. 9 kg weight loss over 3. 8 months of intervention. The effects of increasing dieta ry fiber were reported to be greater in obese individuals.When evaluating the effects of 1 week of supplementation with soluble fiber (guar gum, 40 g/day) on hunger, satiety rating and energy intake, mean daily energy intake decreased significantly from 6. 7 to 5. 4 MJ, while hunger and satiety scores did not change. 104 Long-term (4 – 5 weeks) assessment of wheat dextrin (30 or 45 g/day) supplementation demonstrated a trend towards better weight maintenance; compared with baseline, body weight was increased in the control group supplemented with pure absorbable maltodextrin (+0. 87 kg; P = 0. 07), whereas body weight remained stable in the wheat dextrin-treated groups (+0. 0 kg). 35 sometimes stool frequency. 9,54 Psyllium significantly increased stool frequency and stool weight, increased stool water content, improved stool consistency, increased the frequency of bowel movements and reduced pain on defecation. 55 – 59 Administration of PHGG for 3 weeks increased the frequency of defecation (+0. 17 /day), increased fecal moisture (+5%) and decreased fecal pH. 50 Supplementation with PHGG also helped to reduce the use of laxatives (from an average of 2. 0 to 0. 2 doses/day). 105 Wheat dextrin (100 g/day) had a positive effect on fecal output in healthy men,3 with an average 45% increase in wet fecal weight (P < 0. 05) and 70% increase in dry fecal output (P < 0. 02) (Fig. 3). DIARRHEA Increased intake of soluble fiber may enhance recovery and improve stool consistency in diarrhea. ,5,106 – 109 Persistent diarrhea resolved in more children taking PHGG (84%) compared with those on the control diet (62%) (odds ratio 3. 12), while the duration of diarrhea was reduced and there was a trend towards reduction in daily stool weight that reached significance on days 4 – 7. 6 Compared with non-fiber control in children, PHGG significantly reduced the mean frequency of diarrhea (8. 8% versus 32. 0%; P = 0. 001), resulted in significantly fewer days with diarrhea per total feeding days (10. 8% versus 31. 5%; P < 0. 001) and led to a significantly lower mean diarrhea score (4. 8 versus 9. 4; P < 0. 001). 110 PHGG also suppressed diarrhea caused by the ingestion of high levels of non-digestible sugar substitutes. 11 In elderly patients with diarrhea, 4-week supplementation with soluble dietary fiber (7 g/day) significantly reduced the water content of feces (P < 0. 01), the fecal pH (P < 0. 05) and the frequency of daily bowel movements (P < 0. 05). 5 In addition, the fecal characteristics improved The role of soluble fiber in disease CONSTIPATION Increased daily fiber intake can ameliorate constipation. 40,49,52 – 59 Consumption of inulin or oligofructose was shown to increase fecal weight,53 inulin reduced constipation2 and polydextrose increased fecal mass and Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 9 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al.The health benefits of soluble fiber and the tota l level of SCFAs increased significantly (P < 0. 05). 5 In patients with fecal incontinence, significantly fewer incontinent stools were observed in those who consumed dietary fiber (psyllium or gum arabic) than those receiving placebo. 4 Improvements in fecal incontinence or stool consistency did not appear to be related to unfermented dietary fiber. However, the effects of increased soluble fiber on diarrhea are inconclusive, as a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials found no evidence that dietary fiber was effective in treating diarrhea. 112 randomized studies would be useful to confirm the potentially beneficial effects of soluble fiber in IBS.DIVERTICULOSIS A diet low in fiber is thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of diverticular disease. 114 Increasing dietary fiber produces bulky, soft stools, facilitating defecation and reducing intracolonic pressure. 114 Increased fiber also helps to promote regular bowel function and is important in controlling and minimi zing diverticular disease. 115 – 117 Non-viscous soluble fiber is associated with a decreased risk of diverticular disease and an improvement of bowel pain. 115 In patients with diverticulosis, it is recommended that patients consume 20 – 35 g/day of fiber either through the diet or supplementation. 118 IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROMETreatment for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is aimed at alleviating symptoms. In patients with mild symptoms, fiber supplementation (particularly non-gelling soluble fibers) may help to relieve the severity and frequency of IBS symptoms, including abdominal pain, spasms or distension/tension, bowel dysfunction (e. g. fluctuation between constipation and diarrhea) and flatulence. 8,9,113 PHGG was better tolerated than wheat bran and more readily accepted by IBS patients, resulting in an improved quality of life during the treatment period. 113 PHGG also had a positive effect on evacuation frequency with a decrease in the frequency of IBS symptoms such as flatulence, abdominal tension and abdominal spasm. 13 Based on its physiological properties, wheat dextrin may also help to alleviate gastrointestinal symptoms associated with IBS through increased fecal output,3 enhanced prebiotic capabilities35,45 and significant but slow fermentation in the lower intestine, producing high concentrations of SCFAs but lower amounts of gas, which could be an important aspect in relieving the discomfort caused by IBS. 17 However, double-blind, HEMORRHOIDS A low-fiber diet is thought to contribute to the etiology of hemorrhoids. 119 Increasing the fiber content in the diet can have a beneficial effect in the treatment of symptomatic hemorrhoids. 120,121 A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that increased fiber reduced the risk of bleeding and decreased the rate of recurrence of hemorrhoids,120 while a Cochrane review found that the risk of not improving hemorrhoids and having persisting symptoms decreased by 53% with increased intake of fiber, with a significant reduction in bleeding. 121CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE A number of studies have consistently found that a fiber-enriched diet (14 g fiber/1000 kcal energy) is associated with a significant reduction (16 – 33%) in the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). 19,20,122 – 126 A pooled analysis of studies evaluating dietary fiber Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 10 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber intake in the USA and Europe indicated that each 10 g/day increase in total fiber intake was associated with a 14% decrease in the risk of coronary events (e. g. myocardial infarction), and a 24% decrease in deaths from CHD. 9 A study on the relationship between dietary fiber and risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) among women over a 10-year period showed that the ageadjusted relative risk for major CVD was 0. 53 for women consuming the highest amount of fiber (22. 9 g/day) compared with thos e on the lowest fiber intake (11. 5 g/day). 125 Although few interventional studies have specifically assessed fiber intake on the risk of CVD, increased fiber has been shown to ameliorate some of the risk factors for CVD (e. g. high cholesterol levels, high blood pressure, obesity and diabetes). For example, fiber can significantly reduce blood cholesterol levels and so may be important to cardiovascular health. 5,16,81,127 Consuming foods rich in viscous soluble fibers has been shown to reduce blood levels of LDL-C by 10 – 15%, with an expected reduction in CVD events of 10 – 15%, and it has been stated that a diet including 5 – 10 g/day of viscous soluble fiber reduces CVD events and death independent of baseline risk. 18 Although the cholesterol-lowering effect of soluble (especially viscous) fibers probably contributes the most to its cardioprotective effects, other mechanisms are likely to play a role. As part of a lifestyle modification program, fiber can help to reduce blood pressure significantly,128 supporting research that found that highfiber intake was inversely associated with the risk of high blood pressure or hypertension. 129,130 Two intervention trials found that increased fiber intake resulted in significant reductions in blood pressure compared with placebo. 31,132 In an analysis of the association between nutrient intake and risk of stroke, dietary fiber was inversely correlated to the incidence of stroke, a relationship that was stronger in hypertensive than normotensive men. 133 Fiber is also effective at reducing the risk of diabetes and, thus, the risk of developing CVD, and can improve glycemic and insulinemic indices12,14,69 – 71 and decrease blood glucose and insulin levels. 13,16,72 Lowfiber, high-glycemic load diets are associated with higher serum triglyceride levels and lower HDL-C levels, which are risk factors for CVD. 134,135 Increased fiber consumption may also help control body weight and support a weight reduction program by helping to reduce obesity and, possibly, the associated risk of CVD. 94 – 104 Safety aspects of fiber supplementationReduced absorption of trace elements has traditionally been proposed as a potential negative effect of dietary fiber intake;136,137 however, it is unlikely that healthy adults who consume fiber in amounts within the recommended ranges will have problems with nutrient absorption. In fact, clinical data demonstrate that soluble fibers (e. g. inulin, fructo-oligosaccharides, wheat dextrin) may positively affect the absorption of certain minerals. 3,10,11,64,65 Fermentation of dietary fiber by anaerobic bacteria in the large intestine produces gas (including hydrogen, methane and carbon dioxide), which may be related to complaints of distention or flatulence, especially with high intakes of fiber. An increase in dietary fiber should also be accompanied by an increase in fluid intake, and fiber should be increased gradually to allow th e gastrointestinal tract time to adapt.Normal laxation may be achieved with relatively small amounts of dietary Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 11 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber fiber, and the smallest intake that results in normal laxation should be used. 138 Nevertheless, wheat dextrin has been shown to be well tolerated even up to the relatively high intake of 45 g/day. 51 Higher daily intakes (60 and 80 g) resulted in greater flatulence (P < 0. 05) and some bloating compared with placebo, but no intake resulted in diarrhea. fiber can have beneficial effects on constipation, diarrhea and the symptoms of IBS.Soluble fiber also has additional positive effects on cardiovascular health, leading to a significant risk reduction of CHD. Thus, this review of the physiological effects and subsequent health benefits of soluble fibers suggests that daily fiber supplementation could be beneficial in those individ uals who are at risk of inadequate fiber in their diet. Most servings of common foods contain between 1 and 3 g of dietary fiber so it may be difficult to consume the recommended amounts of fiber. Dietary assessment programs can estimate fiber intake for different population groups, allowing the identification of groups that have deficient fiber intake.At an individual level, fiber intake can be generally estimated based on servings of fruits, vegetables and whole grains having 2 g of dietary fiber per serving, and servings of legumes having 5 g of dietary fiber per serving. Values from high-fiber cereals or fiber supplements can be added to these totals. Wheat dextrin is one example of a soluble fiber supplement that has been shown to help normalize bowel function and is well tolerated, even at large intakes. It is slowly but extensively fermented, leading to a significantly high production of SCFAs, while its slow fermentation profile could help minimize the undesirable effects of gas production and flatulence. Wheat dextrin has also demonstrated enhanced prebiotic capabilities when used at an intake of 30 – 45 g/day.Based on its physiological properties, supplementation with wheat dextrin should be useful in individuals that need to complete their dietary intake with a fiber in order to achieve the daily recommended dietary levels of fiber. Conclusion Review of the evidence indicates that soluble, fermentable fibers, including wheat dextrin, have positive physiological effects that may help to improve bowel regularity and result in some health benefits. Soluble fibers are fermented in the large intestine, leading to the production of SCFAs that lower colonic pH and result in a significant prebiotic effect in which the growth of beneficial intestinal microflora (e. g. ifidobacteria, lactobacilli) and fecal glucosidase concentrations are increased, while the growth of pH-sensitive pathogenic bacteria (e. g. clostridia) is prevented or suppressed. In th is way, SCFAs could promote normal bowel regularity and may help to reduce serum glucose and cholesterol levels. SCFAs also positively influence the absorption and retention of certain micronutrients (e. g. calcium, magnesium, zinc), and may improve immune function by stimulating the production of immunoprotective factors (e. g. T helper cells, antibodies) and improving the barrier properties of the colonic mucosal layer. Soluble fibers that are slowly yet extensively fermented in the large intestine (e. g. heat dextrin) are tolerated more easily than those that ferment quickly, as the latter can produce larger amounts of gas in a shorter period of time, leading to bloating and flatulence. By improving digestive balance, regularity and hydration in the gut, soluble Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 12 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber Acknowledgments Editorial support was given by Deborah Nock, DPP-Cordell Lt d, Saxthorpe, UK. Funding for the review was provided by Novartis Consumer Health, Nyon, Switzerland. Conflicts of interest Alberto Paredes-Diaz and Grigorios Fotopoulos were Novartis Consumer Health, employees at the time of manuscript preparation.The other authors had no conflicts of interest to declare in relation to this article. †¢ Received for publication 8 September 2008 †¢ Accepted subject to revision 9 September 2008 †¢ Revised accepted 11 December 2008 Copyright  © 2009 Field House Publishing LLP References 1 Cummings JH: The effect of dietary fiber on fecal weight and composition. In: CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition (Spiller GA, ed), 2nd edn. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993; pp 263 – 349. 2 Kleessen B, Sykura B, Zunft HJ, et al: Effects of inulin and lactose on fecal microflora, microbial activity, and bowel habit in elderly constipated persons. Am J Clin Nutr 1997; 65: 1397 – 1402. Vermorel M, Coudray C, Wils D, et al: Energy v alue of a low-digestible carbohydrate, NUTRIOSE ®FB, and its impact on magnesium, calcium, and zinc apparent absorption and retention in healthy young men. Eur J Nutr 2004; 43: 344 – 352. 4 Bliss DZ, Guenter PA, Settle RG: Defining and reporting diarrhea in tube-fed patients: what a mess! Am J Clin Nutr 1992; 55: 753 – 759. 5 Nakao M, Ogura Y, Satake S, et al: Usefulness of soluble dietary fiber for the treatment of diarrhea during enteral nutrition in elderly patients. Nutrition 2002; 18: 35 – 39. 6 Alam NH, Sarker SA, Bardhan PK, et al: Partially hydrolysed guar gum supplemented comminuted chicken diet in persistent diarrhoea: randomised controlled trial. Arch Dis Child 2005; 90: 195 – 199. Giaccari S, Grasso G, Tronci S, et al: Partially hydrolyzed guar gum: a fiber as coadjuvant in the irritable colon syndrome. Clin Ter 2001; 152: 21 – 25. 8 Bijkerk CJ, Muris JW, Knottnerus JA, et al: Systematic review: the role of different types of fibre in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004; 19: 245 – 251. 9 Aller R, de Luis DA, Izaola O, et al: Effects of a high-fiber diet on symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome: a randomized clinical trial. Nutrition 2004; 20: 735 – 737. 10 Coudray C, Rambeau M, Feillet-Coudray C, et al: Dietary inulin intake and age can significantly affect intestinal absorption of calcium and magnesium in rats: a stable isotope approach. Nutr J 2005; 4: 29. 1 de Cassia Freitas K, Amancio OM, Ferreira Novo M, et al: Partially hydrolyzed guar gum increases intestinal absorption of iron in growing rats with iron deficiency anemia. Nutrition 2003; 19: 549 – 552. Jackson KG, Taylor GRJ, Clohessy AM, et al: The effect of the daily intake of inulin fasting lipid, insulin and glucose concentrations in middle-aged men and women. Br J Nutr 1999; 82: 23 – 30. Chandalia M, Garg A, Lutjohann D, et al: Beneficial effect of high dietary fiber intake in patients wit h type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1392 – 1398. Donazzolo Y, Pelletier X, Cristiani I, et al: Glycaemic and insulinaemic indexes of NUTRIOSE ® FB in healthy subjects. Dietary Fiber 18 – 21 May 2003 [abstract].Brown L, Rosner B, Willett WW, et al: Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69: 30 – 42. Ohkuma K, Wakabayashi S: Fibersol-2: A soluble, non-digestible, starch derived dietary fibre. In: Advanced Dietary Fibre Technology (McCleary B, Prosky L, eds). Oxford: Blackwell Science, 2001; pp 510 – 523. Stewart ML, Savarino V, Slavin JL: Assessment of dietary fiber fermentation: effect of Lactobacillus reuteri and reproducibility of shortchain fatty acid concentrations. Mol Nutr Food Res 2009; 53: DOI: 10. 1002/mnfr. 200700523. Shamliyan TA, Jacobs DR Jr, Raatz SK, et al: Are your patients with risk of CVD getting the viscous soluble fiber they need? J Fam Pract 2006; 55: 761 – 769.Pere ira MA, O’Reilly E, Augustsson K, et al: Dietary fiber and risk of coronary heart disease: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 370 – 376. Mozaffarian D, Kumanyika SK, Lemaitre RN, et al: Cereal, fruit, and vegetable fiber intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease in elderly individuals. JAMA 2003; 289: 1659 – 1666. Wakai K, Date C, Fukui M, et al: Dietary fiber and risk of colorectal cancer in the Japan collaborative cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 16: 668 – 675. Bingham SA, Day NE, Luben R, et al: Dietary fibre in food and protection against colorectal cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): an observational study. Lancet 2003; 361: 1496 – 1501. 12 13 14 15 16 7 18 19 20 21 22 Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 13 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber 23 Pelucchi C, Talamini R, Galeon e C, et al: Fibre intake and prostate cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2004; 109: 278 – 280. 24 Institute of Medicine: Dietary, functional, and total fiber. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients). Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2005; pp 339 – 421. 25 Shikany JM, White GL: Dietary guidelines for chronic disease prevention. South Med J 2000; 93: 1157 – 1161. 6 Marlett JA, McBurney MI, Slavin JL: Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary fiber. J Am Diet Assoc 2002; 102: 993 – 1000. 27 US Food and Drug Administration: Health claims: soluble fiber from certain foods and risk of heart diseases. Code of Federal Regulations 2001; 21: 101. 81. 28 Cho SS, Dreher ML (eds): Handbook of Dietary Fiber. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2001. 29 Cummings JH, Rombeau JL, Sakata T (eds): Physiological and Clinical Aspects of Short-Chain Fatty Acids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. 30 Topping DL, Clifton PM: Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: roles of resistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides. Physiol Rev 2001; 81: 1031 – 1064. 1 Wong JM, de Souza R, Kendall CW, et al: Colonic health: fermentation and short chain fatty acids. J Clin Gastroenterol 2006; 40: 235 – 243. 32 Drozdowski LA, Dixon WT, McBurney MI, et al: Cellular proliferation and gene expression. J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2002; 26: 145 – 150. 33 Vogt JA, Wolever TM: Fecal acetate is inversely related to acetate absorption from the human rectum and distal colon. Hum Nutr Metab Res Comm 2003; 133: 3145 – 3148. 34 Khattak MMAK: Physiological effects of dietary complex carbohydrates and its metabolites role in certain diseases. Pak J Nutr 2002; 1: 161 – 168. 35 Pasman W, Wils D, Saniez M-H, et al: Long term gastrointestinal tolerance of NUTRIOSE ®FB in healthy men. Eur J Clin Nutr 2006; 60: 1024 â€⠀œ 1034. 6 Tuohy KM, Kolida S, Lustenberger AM, et al: The prebiotic effects of biscuits containing partially hydrolysed guar gum and fructooligosaccharides – a human volunteer study. Br J Nutr 2001; 86: 341 – 348. 37 Okubo T, Ishihara N, Takahashi H, et al: Effects of partially hydrolyzed guar gum intake on human intestinal microflora and its metabolism. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 1994; 58: 1364 – 1369. 38 American Dietetic Association: Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary fiber. J Am Diet Assoc 1997; 97: 1157 – 1159. 39 Gibson GR, Roberfroid MB: Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. J Nutr 1995; 125: 1401 – 1412. 40 Stephen AM, Cummings JH: Mechanism of action of dietary fibre in the human colon. Nature 1980; 284: 283 – 284. 1 World Health Organization: Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consult ation. 2003. Geneva, WHO, WHO Technical Report Series 916. 42 British Nutrition Foundation: Nutrient Requirements and Recommendations, 2004. Available at http://www. nutrition. org. uk/ upload/Nutritient%20Requirements%20and %20recommendations%20pdf(1). pdf [accessed 22 September 2008]. 43 Elmadfa I, Weichselbaum E (eds): Energy and nutrient intake in the European Union. European Nutrition and Health Report 2004. Forum Nutr. Basel: Karger, 2005, Vol 58, pp 19 – 46. 44 Variyam JN: Factors affecting the macronutrient intake of US adults.Washington DC: US Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin Number 1901, April 2003. 45 Van den Heuvel EGHM, Wils D, Pasman WJ, et al: Dietary supplementation of different doses of NUTRIOSE ® FB, a fermentable dextrin, alters the activity of faecal enzymes in healthy men. Eur J Nutr 2005; 44: 445 – 451. 46 Giannini EG, Mansi C, Dulbecco P, et al: Role of partially hydrolyzed guar gum in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Nut rition 2006; 22: 334 – 342. 47 Bouhnik Y, Vahedi K, Achour L, et al: Shortchain fructo-oligosaccharide administration dose-dependently increases fecal bifidobacteria in healthy humans. J Nutr 1999; 129: 113 – 116. 8 Buddington RK, Williams CH, Chen S-C, et al: Dietary supplementation of neosugar alters the fecal flora and decreases activities of some reductive enzymes in human subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 1996; 63: 709 – 716. 49 Jie Z, Bang-Yao L, Ming-Jie X, et al: Studies on the effects of polydextrose intake on physiologic functions in Chinese people. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 72: 1503 – 1509. 50 Takahashi H, Wako N, Okubo T, et al: Influence of partially hydrolyzed guar gum on constipation in women. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo) 1994; 40: 251 – 259. 51 Van den Heuvel EGHM, Wils D, Pasman WJ, et al: Short-term digestive tolerance of different doses of NUTRIOSE ®FB, a food dextrin, in adult men. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004; 58: 1046 – 1055. 2 Kurasawa S, Haack VS, Marlett JA: Plant residue and bacteria as bases for increased stool weight accompanying consumption of higher dietary fiber diets. J Am Coll Nutr 2000; 19: 426 – 433. 53 Gibson GR, Beatty ER, Wang X, et al: Selective stimulation of bifidobacteria in the human colon by oligofructose and inulin. Gastroenterology 1995; 108: 975 – 982. 54 Tomlin J, Read NW: A comparative study of Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 14 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 the effects on colon function caused by feeding ispaghula husk and polydextrose. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1988; 2: 513 – 519.Ashraf W, Park F, Lof J, et al: Effects of psyllium therapy on stool characteristics, colon transit and anorectal function in chronic idiopathic constipation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1995; 9: 639 – 647. McRorie JW, Daggy BP, Morel JG, et al: Psyllium is superior to doc usate sodium for treatment of chronic constipation. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1998; 12: 491 – 497. Burton R, Manninen V: Influence of psylliumbased fibre preparation on faecal and serum parameters. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1982; 668: 91 – 94. Dettmar PW, Sykes J: A multi-centre, general practice comparison ispaghula husk with lactulose and other laxatives in the treatment of simple constipation. Curr Med Res Opin 1998; 14: 227 – 233. Prior A, Whorwell PJ: Double blind study of ispaghula in irritable bowel syndrome. Gut 1987; 28: 1510 – 1513.Holloway L, Moynihan S, Abrams SA, et al: Effects of oligofructose-enriched inulin on intestinal absorption of calcium and magnesium and bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women. Br J Nutr 2007; 97: 365 – 372. Abrams SA, Griffin IJ, Hawthorne KM, et al: A combination of prebiotic short- and long-chain inulin-type fructans enhances calcium absorption and bone mineralization in young adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr 2005 ; 82: 471 – 476. Tahiri M, Tressol JC, Arnaud J: Five-week intake of short-chain fructo-oligosaccharides increases intestinal absorption and status of magnesium in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 2001; 16: 2152 – 2160. Scholz-Ahrens KE, Schrezenmeir J: Inulin, oligofructose and mineral metabolism – experimental data and mechanism. Br J Nutr 2002; 87(suppl 2): S179 – S186.Hara H, Suzuki T, Kasai T, et al: Ingestion of guar gum hydrolysates, a soluble fiber, increases calcium absorption in totally gastrectomized rats. J Nutr 1999; 129: 39 – 45. Raschka L, Daniel H: Mechanisms underlying the effects of inulin-type fructans on calcium absorption in the large intestine of rats. Bone 2005; 37: 728 – 735. Katoh K, Tsuda T: Effects of acetylcholine and short-chain fatty acids on acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas in sheep. J Physiol 1984; 356: 479 – 489. Mineo H, Hashizume Y, Hanaki Y: Chemical specificity of short-chain fatty acids in stimulating insulin and glucagon secretion in sheep. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 1994; 267: E234 – E241. Wolever TM, Jenkins DJ: Effect of dietary fiber and foods on carbohydrate metabolism.In: CRC Handbook of Dietary Fiber in Human Nutrition (Spiller GA, ed), 2nd edn. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993; pp 111 – 152. 69 Williams JA, Lai C, Corwin H, et al: Inclusion of guar gum and alginate into a crispy bar improves postprandial glycemia in humans. J Nutr 2004; 134: 886 – 889. 70 Prieto PG, Cancelas J, Villanueva-Penacarrillo ML, et al: Short-term and long-term effects of guar on postprandial plasma glucose, insulin and glucagon-like peptide 1 concentration in healthy rats. Horm Metab Res 2006; 38: 397 – 404. 71 Asp ML, Hertzler SR, Chow J, et al: Gammacyclodextrin lowers postprandial glycemia and insulinemia without carbohydrate malabsorption in healthy adults. J Am Coll Nutr 2006; 25: 49 – 55. 2 Wakabayashi S, Ueda Y, Matsuoka A: Effects of indi gestible dextrin on blood glucose and insulin levels after various sugar loads in rats. J Jpn Soc Nutr Food Sci 1993; 46: 131 – 137. 73 Wakabayashi S, Kishimoto Y, Matsuoka A: Effects of indigestible dextrin on glucose tolerance in rats. J Endocrinol 1995; 144: 533 – 538. 74 Anderson JW, Randles KM, Kendall CW, et al: Carbohydrate and fiber recommendations for individuals with diabetes: a quantitative assessment and meta-analysis of the evidence. J Am Coll Nutr 2004; 23: 5 – 17. 75 Salmeron J, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al: Dietary fiber, glycemic load, and risk of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. JAMA 1997; 277: 472 – 477. 6 Tseng CC, Kieffer TJ, Jarboe LA, et al: Postprandial stimulation of insulin releases by glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP): effect of a specific glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor antagonist in the rat. J Clin Invest 1996; 98: 2440 – 2445. 77 Van Dijk G, Thiele TE: Glucagon-li ke peptide-I (7-36) amide: a central regulator of satiety and interoceptive stress. Neuropeptides 1999; 33: 406 – 414. 78 Bourdon I, Olson B, Rackus R, et al: Beans, as a source of dietary fiber, increase cholecystokinin and apolipoprotein B48 response to test meals in men. J Nutr 2001; 131: 1485 – 1490. 79 Burton-Freeman B, Davis PA, Schneeman BO: Plasma cholecystokinin is associated with subjective measures of satiety in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76: 659 – 667. 0 Bourdon I, Yokoyama W, Davis P, et al: Postprandial lipid, glucose, insulin, and cholecystokinin responses in men fed barley pasta enriched with ? -glucan. Am J Clin Nutr 1999; 69: 55 – 63. 81 Anderson JW, Gilinsky NH, Deakins DA, et al: Lipid responses of hypercholesterolemic men to oat-bran and wheat-bran intake. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 54: 678 – 683. 82 Marlett JA: Dietary fiber and cardiovascular disease. In: Handbook of Dietary Fiber (Cho SS, Dreher ML, eds). New York: Marcel Dekker, 2001: pp 17 – 30. 83 Trautwein EA, Kunath-Rau A, Erbersdobler HF: Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 15 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A Paredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98Increased fecal bile acid excretion and changes in the circulating bile acid pool are involved in the hypocholesterolemic and gallstone-preventive actions of psyllium in hamsters. J Nutr 1999; 129: 896 – 902. Anderson JW, Deakins DA, Bridges SR: Soluble fiber: hypocholesterolemic effects and proposed mechanisms. In: Dietary Fibre – Chemistry, Physiology, and Health Effects (Kritchevsky D, Bonfield C, Anderson JW, eds). New York: Plenum Press, 1990; pp 339 – 363. Juhel C, Tosini F, Steib M, et al: Cholesterollowering effect of non-viscous soluble dietary fiber Nutriose ® FB in hypercholesterolemic hamsters. Ann Nutr Metab 2007; 15(suppl 1): 259.Pratt VC, Tappenden KA, McBurney MI, et al: Short-chain fa tty acid-supplemented total parenteral nutrition improves nonspecific immunity after intestinal resection in rats. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1996; 20: 264 – 271. Sanderson IR: Short chain fatty acid regulation of signaling genes expressed by the intestinal epithelium. J Nutr 2004; 134: 2450S – 2454S. Roediger WE: Utilization of nutrients by isolated epithelial cells of rat colon. Gastroenterology 1982; 83: 424 – 429. Koruda MJ, Rolandelli RH, Bliss DZ, et al: Parenteral nutrition supplemented with shortchain fatty acids: effect on the small bowel mucosa in normal rats. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 51: 685 – 689. Mariadason JM, Barkla DH, Gibson PR: Effect of short-chain fatty acids on paracellular permeability in Caco-2 intestinal epithelium model.Am J Physiol 1997; 272: G705 – G712. Blum S, Schiffrin EJ: Intestinal microflora and homeostasis of the mucosal immune response: implications for probiotic bacteria? Curr Issues Intest Microbiol 2003; 4: 53 â €“ 60. Schiffrin EJ, Rochat F, Link-Amster H, et al: Immunomodulation of human blood cells following the ingestion of lactic acid bacteria. J Dairy Sci 1995; 78: 491 – 497. Lissner L, Lindroos AK, Sjostrom L: Swedish obese subjects (SOS): an obesity intervention study with a nutritional perspective. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998; 52: 316 – 322. Kimm S: The role of dietary fiber in the development and treatment of childhood obesity. Pediatr 1995; 96: 1010 – 1014. AlfieriM, Pomerleau J, Grace DM, et al: Fiber intake of normal weight, moderately obese and severely obese subjects. Obes Res 1995; 3: 541 – 547. Nelson LH, Tucker LA: Diet composition related to body fat in a multivariate study of 293 men. J Am Diet Assoc 1996; 96: 771 – 777. Kromhout D, Bloemberg B, Seidell JC, et al: Physical activity and dietary fiber determine population body fat levels: the Seven Countries Study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25: 301 – 306. Slavin J, Green H: Dietary fibre and satiety. Nutr Bull 2007; 32: 32 – 42. 99 Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Rao AV, et al: Effect on blood lipids of very high intakes of fiber in diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 21 – 26. 00 Birketvedt GS, Aaseth J, Florholmen JR, et al: Long-term effect of fibre supplement and reduced energy intake on body weight and blood lipids in overweight subjects. Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove) 2000; 43: 129 – 132. 101 Mueller-Cunningham WM, Quintana R, Kasim-Karakas SE: An ad libitum, very low-fat diet results in weight loss and changes in nutrient intakes in postmenopausal women. J Am Diet Assoc 2003; 103: 1600 – 1606. 102 Hays NP, Starling RD, Liu X, et al: Effects of an ad libitum low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet on body weight, body composition, and fat distribution in older men and women. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164: 210 – 217. 103 Howarth NC, Saltzman E, Roberts SB: Dietary fiber and weight regulation. Nutr Rev 20 01; 59: 129 – 139. 04 Pasman WJ, Saris WHM, Wauters MAJ, et al: Effect of one week of fibre supplementation on hunger and satiety ratings and energy intake. Appetite 1997; 29: 77 – 78. 105 Patrick PG, Gohman SM, Marx SC, et al: Effect of supplements of partially hydrolyzed guar gum on the occurrence of constipation and use of laxative agents. J Am Diet Assoc 1998; 98: 912. 106 Schiller LR: Chronic diarrhea. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol 2005; 8: 259 – 266. 107 Meier R, Burri E, Steuerwald M: The role of nutrition in diarrhea syndromes. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2003; 6: 563 – 567. 108 Alam NH, Meier R, Schneider H, et al: Partially hydrolyzed guar gum-supplemented oral rehydration solution in the treatment of acute diarrhea in children. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2000; 31: 503 – 507. 09 Homann HH, Kemen M, Fuessenich C, et al: Reduction in diarrhea incidence by soluble fiber in patients receiving total or supplemental enteral nutrition. J PEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1994; 18: 486 – 490. 110 Spapen H, Diltoer M, Van Malderen C, et al: Soluble fiber reduces the incidence of diarrhea in septic patients receiving total enteral nutrition: a prospective, double-blind, randomized, and controlled trial. Clin Nutr 2001; 20: 301 – 305. 111 Nakamura S, Hong R, Moji M, et al: Suppressive effect of partially hydrolyzed guar gum on transitory diarrhea induced by ingestion of maltitol and lactitol in healthy humans. Eur J Clin Nutr 2007; 61: 1086 – 1093. 12 Yang G, Wu X-T, Zhou Y, et al: Application of dietary fiber in clinical enteral nutrition: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11: 3935 – 3938. 113 Parisi GC, Zilli M, Miani MP, et al: High-fiber diet supplementation in patients with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): a multicenter, randomized, open trial comparison between Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 16 JL Slavin, V Savarino, A P aredes-Diaz et al. The health benefits of soluble fiber wheat bran diet and partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG). Dig Dis Sci 2002; 47: 1696 – 1704. 114 Deckmann RC, Cheskin LJ: Diverticular disease in the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 986 – 993. 15 Aldoori WH, Giovannucci EL, Rockett HR, et al: A prospective study of dietary fiber types and symptomatic diverticular disease in men. J Nutr 1998; 128: 714 – 719. 116 Smits BJ, Whitehead AM, Prescott P: Lactulose in the treatment of symptomatic diverticular disease: a comparative study with high-fibre diet. Br J Clin Pract 1990; 44: 314 – 318. 117 Brodrib AJ: Treatment of symptomatic diverticular disease with a high-fibre diet. Lancet 1977; i: 664 – 668. 118 Marlett JA, McBurney MI, Slavin JL: Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary fiber. J Am Diet Assoc 2002; 102: 933 – 1000. 119 Burkitt DP: Varicose veins, deep vein thrombosis and haemorrhoids: epid emiology and suggested aetiology. Br Med J 1972; 2: 556 – 561. 20 Alonso-Coello P, Mills E, Heels-Ansdell D, et al: Fiber for the treatment of hemorrhoids complications: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 181 – 188. 121 Alonso-Coello P, Guyatt G, Heels-Ansdell D, et al: Laxatives for the treatment of hemorrhoids. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005, Issue 4 Art No: CD004649. DOI: 10. 1002/ 14651858. CD004649. pub2. 122 Khaw KT, Barrett-Connor E: Dietary fiber and reduced ischemic heart disease mortality rates in men and women: a 12-year prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 1987; 126: 1093 – 1102. 123 Rimm EB, Ascherio A, Giovannucci E, et al: Vegetable, fruit, and cereal fiber intake and risk of coronary heart disease among men. JAMA 1996; 275: 447 – 451. 24 Todd S, Woodward M, Tunstall-Pedoe H, et al: Dietary antioxidant vitamins and fiber in the etiology of cardiovascular disease and allcauses mortality: results from the Scotti sh Heart Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 1999; 150: 1073 – 1080. 125 Wolk A, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al: Longterm intake of dietary fiber and decreased risk of coronary heart disease among women. JAMA 1999; 281: 1998 – 2004. 126 Bazzano LA, He J, Ogden LG, et al: Dietary fiber intake and reduced risk of coronary heart disease in US men and women: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 1897 – 1904. 27 Jenkins DJA, Vuksan V, Kendall CWC, et al: Physiological effects of resistant starches on fecal bulk, short chain fatty acids, blood lipids and glycemic index. J Am Coll Nutr 1998; 17: 609 – 616. 128 Elmer PJ, Obarzanek E, Vollmer WM: Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on diet, weight, physical fitness, and blood pressure control: 18-month results of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144: 485 – 495. 129 Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, et al: A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US men. Circulation 1992; 86: 1475 – 1484. 130 Ascherio A, Hennekens C, Willett WC, et al: Prospective study of nutritional factors, blood pressure, and hypertension among US women. Hypertension 1996; 27: 1065 – 1072. 31 Keenan JM, Pins JJ, Frazel C, et al: Oat ingestion reduces systolic and diastolic blood pressure in patients with mild or borderline hypertension: a pilot trial. J Fam Pract 2002; 51: 369. 132 He J, Streiffer RH, Muntner P, et al: Effect of dietary fiber intake on blood pressure: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Hypertens 2004; 22: 73 – 80. 133 Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Hernan MA, et al: Intake of potassium, magnesium, calcium, and fiber and risk of stroke among US men. Circulation 1998; 98: 1198 – 1204. 134 Ford ES, Liu S: Glycemic index and serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration among US adults. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 572 – 576. 35 Liu S, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al: Dietary glycemic load assessed by food-frequency questionnaire in relation to plasma highdensity-lipoprotein cholesterol and fasting plasma triacylglycerols in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr 2001; 73: 560 – 566. 136 Walker AR: Dietary fibre and mineral metabolism. Mol Aspects Med 1987; 9: 69 – 87. 137 Torre M, Rodriguez AR, Saura-Calixto F: Effects of dietary fiber and phytic acid on mineral availability. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 1991; 30: 1 – 22. 138 Slavin JL, Greenberg NA: Partially hydrolyzed guar gum: clinical nutrition uses. Nutrition 2003; 19: 549 – 552. Author’s address for correspondence Dr Joanne L Slavin Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota,1334 Eckles Avenue, St Paul, MN 55108, USA. E-mail: [email  protected] edu Downloaded from imr. sagepub. com by guest on March 27, 2013 17